CHAPTER 5:VOLCANIC

HAZARDS
GROUP 1
CHAPTER 5
• Section 5.1 Lava Flow By: Yap and Soriano
• Section 5.2 Volcanic Gases By: Trixie and Mariagon
• Section 5.3 Pyroclastic Flow By: Auxtero and Arao
• Section 5.4 Tephra Falls and Ballistic Projectiles By: Ambungan and Abas
• Section 5.5 Lahars By: Aranador and Florable
• Section 5.6 Volcanic Debris Avalanche By: Auguis and Torrefiel
VOLCANOES
• Volcanoes in the Philippines are a major sources
of hazards. The archipelago was formed largely
by volcanism and it has one of the biggest
concentration of volcanoes.
• 25 volcanoes in the Philippines are considered
active.

Taal Volcano Eruption, Jan 2020

SECTION 5.1 LAVA FLOW
PRESENTED BY: YAP AND SORIANO
LAVA FLOW • A lava flow, or simply lava, is a product of
the quiet effusion of molten rock or magma
from beneath a volcano. One would
probably not dare go near a red-hot lava
flow or fountain. When a lava flow comes
out of a volcanic vent, its temperature
ranges from 700 °C to 1200 °C.
• However, they often show people marveling
at lava flows and fountains, unmindful of
the searing heat that lava flows produce.
• The reason why a lava flow is not worrisome
to many is its extremely low speed. It could
Hawaii lava flow, December 20, 2020 to mid-May 2021
be 100,000 times as viscous as water, but
lava flows travel slower like in Hawaii.
Because of this, lava flows seldom cause
deaths directly.
• But when a dome that forms from the
piling up of lava flows near the vent
collapses, pyroclastic flows form and they
are among the most lethal volcanic
hazards.
• Also, what happens when lahars form
from the melting of snow by lava is
another story. Though not directly lethal to
people, this lava flows are harmful to
property and the environment in many
other ways.
• We study lava flows not only for the
dangers they bring but also for the wealth
of knowledge they give us about the
nature and activity of volcanoes.
GENERATION OF MAGMA
What is magma?
Magma is found beneath the surface of the Earth and, well, it is understandable that magma is heated molten rock
that is underground.

Generation of Magma
• The heat that forms molten rocks comes from the heat still trapped inside the earth which if left over from the earth's formation
4.6 billion years ago. Some of the heat comes from the sinking of the materials that make up the core. The heat from the
radioactive decay of elements also contributes to the heat inside the earth. Partial melting of some rocks at depths of about 50-
100km is due to this heat. Magma and lava that comes out of the volcanoes in Hawaii are formed from this and are termed
“hot spot” volcanoes.

• Most of the magma and lava from volcanoes, however, are formed at plate boundaries. The heat in the mantle forms convection
cells that drive the motion of tectonic plates. During the motion basaltic lava comes out of divergent plate margins or mid-
oceanic ridges. Volcanoes also forms when a plates dives under another plate along convergent boundaries called subduction
zones. Still, another are formed along transform faults or the so called “leaky transform faults”.
LAVA EFFUSION AND EXPLOSIVE ERUPTION
Some molten materials come out to the surface almost unnoticed while
others come out with a bang. Gas content of the magma has something to do with
this. (Figure 5.1-2). As magma rises to the surface where the pressure is less, gases
dissolved in the magma expand. The volume of gas expands as pressure is reduced.
Too much gas gives magmas their explosive character because of the sudden and
tremendous expansion of gas volume. While explosive eruptions that produce
fragments are called tephra, quiet eruptions create lavas.
LAVA EFFUSION AND EXPLOSIVE ERUPTION
• The amount of gas involved in eruptions determines not only
the type of material that comes out but also the type of
landform a volcano will be made of. What happens during an
eruption period is dictated by fluctuations in the accumulation
and release of gas from the volcanic system. It is not at all
unusual for a volcano to display both effusive and violent
phases during an eruption cycle.

• The amount of gas involved is dependent on the viscosity of

magmas, which in turn depends on the composition and
temperature of the magma. Magmas with higher silica (SIO)
content (andesitic to rhyolitic) have higher viscosity than
magmas with lower silica (SIO) content (basaltic to andesitic).
Viscosity increases with decreasing magma temperature. Table
5.1-1 summarizes the dependence of gas content on viscosity,
chemical composition, and temperature of magma.
TYPES OF LAVA FLOW
Basaltic lava flow
• is the fastest flowing lava because of its relatively low viscosity.
• It is usually associated with the broad landforms of shield volcanoes such as those in Hawaii.
• Lava flow styles are Pahoehoe and A'a.
• Pahoehoe is composed of thin flows with smooth surface that sometimes feature ropy folds.
• A'a flows have sharp, spiny surfaces. This is the result when the lava hardens more quickly than it flows.

Andesitic lava flow

• Is typically associated with strato volcanoes and commonly form lava domes.
• The volume of andesitic lavas is small, so they do not usually go beyond the foot of the volcano.
• Because of their viscous nature, the surface of andesitic flows is comprised of smooth-sided fragments. These
flows are called block lava flows as the surface fragments are loosely termed blocks. Traveling only at a speed of
no more than 5 m per day, andesitic flows are slow by lava flow standards.
TYPES OF LAVA FLOW
Rhyolitic lava flows
• have relatively higher viscosity that is why these are a lot slower than andesitic and basaltic flows.
• Rhyolites are usually associated with violent eruptions involving pyroclastic flows and with very steep landforms
such as lava domes and lava spines.
• Rhyolitic lavas flow out of a volcano after the pyroclastic flow event.

Other types of lava include sheet lava and pillow lava

• Sheet flows are thicker than pahoehoe and have surface textures ranging from ropy to striated. These are
associated with violent eruptions. Sheet flows usually collapse as a result of the emptying of lava below. the
hardened surface.
• Pillow lavas are pillow-shaped rocks formed by the sudden cooling of lava that is deposited underwater).
Undersea volcanoes including mid-oceanic ridges are the usual sources of lavas that form pillows. Volcanoes on
land may also directly deposit into water its lava to be quenched and form pillow lavas.
SECTION 5.2 VOLCANIC
GASES
PRESENTED BY: TRIXIE
WHAT ARE VOLCANIC GASES?

Volcanic gases are gases given off by active volcanoes. These include gases trapped in cavities (vesicles) in
volcanic rocks, dissolved or dissociated gases in magma and lava, or gases emanating from lava, from volcanic
craters or vents. Volcanic gases can also be emitted through groundwater heated by volcanic action.

VOLCANIC GASES FORMATION AND ESCAPE TO THE SURFACE

Gas is what really makes volcanic eruptions work. Like magma, an extremely hot liquid and semi-liquid rock
located under Earth's surface can become gaseous or give off gas when heated. Magma contains dissolved gases,
which provide the driving force that causes most volcanic eruptions. As magma rises towards the surface and
pressure decreases, gases are released from the liquid portion of the magma (melt) and continue to travel upward
and are eventually released into the atmosphere. When magma rises to the Earth’s surface and erupts, volcanic
gases will expand enormously.
BUT WHERE DO ALL THE GASES OF VOLCANOES GIVE OFF COME FROM?

It is believed that all the gases that volcanoes give off come from the deeper portions of the mantle.

DANGEROUS VOLCANIC GAS COMPONENTS AND THEIR EFFECTS

Gases from volcanoes give rise to numerous impacts on climate, the environment, and people. Ninety-nine
percent of the gas molecules emitted during a volcanic eruption are water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), and
sulfur dioxide (SO2). The remaining one percent is comprised of small amounts of hydrogen sulfide, fluorine, and
other minor gas species. By far the most abundant volcanic gas is water vapor, which is harmless.
Carbon Dioxide CO2
Carbon dioxide is a colorless and non-flammable gas at normal temperature and pressure. Exposure to CO2
can produce a variety of health effects. These may include headaches, dizziness, restlessness, a tingling or pins or
needles feeling, difficulty breathing, sweating, tiredness, increased heart rate, elevated blood pressure, coma,
asphyxia, and convulsions.
Sulfur Dioxide SO2
Sulfur dioxide is a colorless gas with a pungent odor. It is a liquid when under pressure, and it dissolves in
water very easily. Sulfur dioxide affects the respiratory system, particularly lung function, and can irritate the eyes.
Sulfur dioxide irritates the respiratory tract and increases the risk of tract infections. It causes coughing, mucus
secretion and aggravates conditions such as asthma and chronic bronchitis.
Hydrogen sulphide H2S
Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) is a colourless gas with a distinctive odour of rotten eggs. It is a toxic gas and the
health hazard depends upon both the duration of exposure and the concentration. The gas is an irritant of the
lungs and at low concentrations irritates the eyes and the respiratory tract. Exposure may result in headache,
fatigue, dizziness, staggering gait, and diarrhoea, followed sometimes by bronchitis and bronchopneumonia
Fluorine
A very pale yellow-green, dangerously reactive gas. It is the most reactive of all the elements and quickly
attacks all metals. If fluorine is absorbed too frequently, it can cause teeth decay, osteoporosis and harm to
kidneys, bones, nerves and muscles. Fluorine gas is released in the industries. This gas is very dangerous, as it can
cause death at very high concentrations. At low concentrations it causes eye and nose irritations.

Volcanic gas can be directly harmful to humans, animals, plants, agricultural crops, and property. Usually, the
hazards from volcanic gases are most severe in the areas immediately surrounding volcanoes, especially on
volcano flanks downwind of active vents and fumaroles. But these hazards can persist for long distances
downwind following large eruptions, or from volcanoes erupting gas-rich magma.
IDENTIFYING VOLCANIC GAS
DANGER SPOTS AND AREAS
PRONE TO GAS ACCUMULATION
PRESENTED BY: MARIAGON
What is Gas Accumulation?

Gas Accumulation – Flatulence is a build up of gas in the digestive system that can lead to abdominal discomfort.

IDENTIFYING VOLCANIC GAS DANGER SPOTS AND AREAS PRONE TO GAS ACCUMULATION

Hazard zones for volcanic gases escaping through craters, vents, fissures or hydrothermal features are
typically close to these emission sites. Gas emission site locations, low-lying areas in which dense gases can
accumulate, and wind directions that favor gas accumulations are all reflected in defining hazard zones.

Carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide are heavier than air are thus flow near the ground and closed
depressions like stream valleys in topographically low areas.

Airborne gases become diluted by winds and so people in areas 10Km from an emission site are seldom
affected from carbon dioxide asphyxiation.
MITIGATION MEASURES FOR VOLCANIC GASES

Some volcanoes continually emit toxic gases that may be associated with the deposition of Fluorine and
other trace elements. In such cases, the effects of volcanic gases can be mitigated only by the evacuation and
resettlement of the affected population.

In other situations, volcanic gases are emitted only occasionally on both active and dormant volcanoes. To
be able to respond when critic concentrations of gas such as CO2 and CO are reached, automated gas alarms
had been used.

Residents will be more receptive when they are advised on the use of gas mask, to evacuate into a facility
with a desulfurization equipment, and when they are barred from high-risk areas which are displayed in notice
boards. It may be necessary to evacuate populations where there is persistent potential for toxic levels of
gases. Among the most important protective gadgets that people should have for protection from toxic gases
and dust are face masks.
Ways to prevent worsening of pre-existing non communicable respiratory disease, interstitial lung diseases, and
pulmonary vascular disease by acid rains, gases, and ash the actions are recommended:

• Drink fluids to encouraging loosening of secretions and coughing. Staying hydrated will help clear the particles
and inhaled sulfur compounds from the lungs.

• During periods of volcanic pollution, avoid contact with people who have colds

• Avoid smoking and inhaling second-hand as smoke will only add to breathing problems.

• Avoid overexertion. If one have to go outdoors, limit physical activities.

• In heavy pollution, stay indoors, close windows and doors, turn on air conditioners or purifier. An air conditioner
will condense water out and will remove the particulate sulfur compounds and acid gases. The baking soda
helps neutralize the sulfur compounds while the moisture will help filter air particles.

• Use gas masks. If one have to work outdoors, one can greatly reduce exposure to the sulfur compounds and vog
by using a gas mask. The use of commercial masks made of vinyl or rubber gas mask fitted with cartridges rated
for acid gases and particulates is highly recommended.
People who are most vulnerable to these hazards, especially children and other sensitive individuals with pre-
existing respiratory conditions such as asthma, emphysema, bronchitis, and chronic lung or heart disease,
should:

• Keep medications on hand and readily available. It is still wiser to avoid or leave areas that are reasonably
likely to be impacted by vog in the near future. Even when evacuating, it is possible that vog will be
encountered along the way so current medications as well as a gas or particulate mask should be carried.

• If any respiratory symptoms should develop, contact a doctor as soon as possible.

• Acid rain landing on roofs causes increased acidity of water in catchment tanks. A simple trick is to add baking
soda to the water in the tank to neutralize acidity.

• Advisories from Civil Defense authorities should be heeded by the people living in areas affected SO2 and vog.
SECTION 5.3 PYROCLASTIC
FLOW
PRESENTED BY: ARAO
PYROCLASTIC FLOW

Pyroclastic flows are one of the most dangerous volcanic hazards. If you find a slow-moving, glowing hot lava
flow scary, consider its fractured version, which is not only as hot as the original but also flows extremely quickly.
No one has ever come near to expressing how deadly pyroclastic flows are in terms of heat, speed, or volume. Only
a few people have survived their encounter with a pyroclastic flow to tell the tale. One common question is why
people are so foolish to live so close to volcanoes since eruption mechanisms such as pyroclastic flows are clearly
dangerous. The most prevalent reason has to do with the soil fertility that weathers down from volcanic rocks.
However, the same volcano that nurtures the lives of local residents is also capable of destroying this, often
without warning. Pyroclastic flows are too hot and too rapid, posing a serious threat. The choice to flee should not
be made on the spur of the moment. That might be a last-minute decision.
HOW DO PYROCLASTIC FLOWS OCCUR

Pyroclastic flows are extremely quickly hot combinations of fresh lava, gas, rock, pumice, and ash that flow
down the slopes of a volcanic crater. The materials could come from the lava dome collapsing at or around the
peak, or from debris falling back down from an eruption column that couldn’t go any higher. The lighter
components, such as ash and gas, float above the denser basal part of the flow due to some sort of threshing
process. The gas composition of pyroclastic flows determines their mobility and speed, as does the heat
generated by their components, which generates more gases. Additional gas is produced by the air, burned plants,
heated surface water, and ice and snow melting. The gas keeps the finer particles in suspension. This mixture of
fine solid and gas then supports large fragments.
TYPES OF PYROCLASTIC FLOWS

Knowing the different kinds of pyroclastic flows is just as important as knowing the different types of
volcanoes. There are two categories of people: those who are violent and those who are calm. All pyroclastic
flows are deadly, and victims will be unable to distinguish between the many varieties that hit them. Recognizing
the various types of pyroclastic flows, on the other hand, aids in the differentiation of these from other eruption
products. As a result, people are more aware of the various levels of threat that volcanoes pose. When notified of
an impending pyroclastic flow, lava flow, air fall, lahar, or debris avalanche, people would know what to do.
WHAT ARE THE EFFECTS OF
PYROCLASTIC FLOWS?
PRESENTED BY: AUXTERO
WHAT ARE THE EFFECTS OF PYROCLASTIC FLOWS?

The world pyroclast is derived from the Greek pyr,

meaning “fire”, and klastos, meaning “broken in pieces.” A
pyroclastic flow’s “broken pieces” consist of volcanic glass,
crystals, and rocks such as pumice or scoria. The speed (up
to -710 km/hr) and temperature (up to -1,000 °C) of a
pyroclastic flow make it extremely dangerous. It is so hot
and moves so quickly that anyone has little chance of
escaping and even less of surviving.
1. Burn

People, houses, and vegetation can be burned by the extreme

temperatures of rocks and gas inside pyroclastic flows. Though hot gases
may have killed them first, the ash and pumice of pyroclastic. Burns can
kill or seriously injure people and animals near the edges of pyroclastic
flows. It can also destroy properties, buildings, and so and so forth.
The impact and burial A pyroclastic flow brings due to its speed,
mass, and volume, will knock down, shatter, bury, or carry away nearly all
objects and structures in its path. Rock fragments range in size from ash to
boulders and typically travel at speeds of more than 80 km/h.
Notable Pyroclastic Flows:
• Soufrière, St. Vincent, 1902
• Mont Pelée, 1902-3, 1929-30
• Mayon Volcano, Philippines, 1968, 1983,and 1993
• Mount St. Helens, Washington, 1980
• El Chichón, Mexico, 1983
• Kelut, Java, 1983
• Mount Pinatubo, Philippines, 1991-93
• Mount Unzen Volcano, Japan, 1991-95.
2. Inhalation of Hot Gases

Hot ash and gas not only burn but also make breathing difficult. In
addition to water, volcanoes emit toxic gases such as HS, SO, and Fr,
which combine with water to form harmful compounds. The toxic
compounds released by pyroclastic flows will cause immediate
asphyxiation in humans and animals. Suffocation is the most common
cause of death from a volcano. Volcanic ash is very difficult to clean up.
3. Lahar flows

Lahars and flooding Valleys, as well as other low-lying areas

along volcano slopes, serve as channel ways and receptors for
pyroclastic flow deposits. The thick accumulation of loose pyroclastic
flow deposits (up to 200 m thick) is easily mobilized by stream flow
to form a lahar. Damming of rivers upstream may result in a massive
rush of water and debris downslope. Pyroclastic flows can also melt
snow and ice, releasing a torrent of water that can carry new
pyroclastic flow deposits as well as older debris down.
Mitigating the effects of Lahar flow

Flows Many deaths have already been attributed to pyroclastic flows that have run over residential areas. The same
areas are now more developed and densely populated, but the threat of pyroclastic flows remains. Can you name one or two
of these places that have been severely damaged in the past? As a result, engineering solutions similar to those proposed for
lava flows have been floated in order to avoid its impact. Do you remember what these are? However, the likelihood of these
working for pyroclastic flow is slim. For one thing, pyroclastic flow pathways such as valleys upslope are usually too deep for
diversion measures to work. Additionally, the speed of pyroclastic flows makes reasonable height barriers highly unlikely to
work. Any barrier or diversion design must also account for the overlying ash cloud, which can reach greater heights. Any
engineering measure, without giving false hope, may work for smaller and slower types of pyroclastic flow. There has also
been talk about constructing structures that can withstand pyroclastic flows.
SECTION 5.4 TEPHRA FALLS
AND BALLISTIC PROJECTILES
PRESENTED BY: AMBUNGAN
 In 1815, Mount Tambora, a volcano in Indonesia, erupted. That year was called “the year without a summer.”
Can something be that big to block sunlight over a big part of the earth’s surface?

Tambora ejected so much volcanic material in what is known as the biggest eruption in recorded history.

Not all the materials that went up from the volcano’s vent went back down right away. The finest of the
materials, ash, went up so high and never settled down near the volcano. So much material was spread far enough
by atmospheric circulation that the sunlight was actually blocked. This also caused temporary cooling that global
temperatures dropped an average of about 0.5°C and caused incidences of extreme weather. A similar
phenomenon happened when Pinatubo Volcano erupted in 1991
 What are Tephra Falls and Ballistic Projectiles?

Tephra refers to volcanic rock and lava materials that are ejected into the air by explosions or carried
upward by eruption column's hot gases or lava fountains.

While pyroclastic flows follow the slope on the way down, tephra falls skip hugging the slope and go directly
to the ground. Tephra falls range in size from less than 2 mm (ash) to more than 1 m in diameter. In most cases,
however, air fall tephra consists of ash (<2mm) and of the coarser lapilli (2-64 mm in diameter).

Large-sized tephra typically falls back to the ground on or close to the volcano and progressively smaller
fragments are carried away from the vent by wind. Ash can travel hundreds to thousands of kilometers
downwind from a volcano. It often leaves a mantle of ash layer over the landscape that diminishes in thickness
the farther it goes from the volcanic center. Ash can circle the globe if the eruption column is high enough.

Ballistic projectiles are a special kind of tephra. These follow a projectile path as these are forced out of the
vent at steep angles like a cannon ball. Ballistic projectiles consist of bombs, blocks, and lapilli. Bombs and
blocks are > 64 mm in diameter but differ in the nature of source material. Bombs are derived from fresh
magma while blocks are chips of the walls of the volcanic vent. While bombs attain smoothness and peculiar
shapes before they fall to the ground, blocks are rough with sharp edges.
Types of Tephra Falls and Ballistic Projectiles

There are many kinds of tephra that differ in size, shape, density, and chemical composition. To simplify
things, volcanologists first classify tephra deposits according to size. Do you know why this kind of classification
makes perfect sense? Tephra falls and ballistic projectiles undergo some kind of winnowing process that sort
fragments from the largest (bombs and blocks), near the volcano, to finest (ash), farther away from the source.
DANGER FROM TEPHRA FALLS
AND BALLISTIC PROJECTIVE
PRESENTED BY: ABAS
Danger from Tephra Falls and Ballistic projective

Tephra falls and ballistic projectiles may not be directly threatening unless a person is close enough to
an eruption to be struck by larger fragments. Though only indirectly fatal, thick ash falls farther away from the
eruption column may be as dangerous. Even a thin veneer of volcanic ash is highly disruptive because it
mantles considerable part of the landscape.

• Airborne fine particles can harm the eyes with

conjunctivitis and corneal abrasions. It can also cause
human asphyxiation and damage to lungs of survivors.
Would you believe that the main danger of the finer falling fragments is their weight?
Ash is made up of pulverized rock but can be extremely heavy if it gets wet. People should watch out for
ash accumulation on roofs (Figure 5.4-9). Most of the deaths reported during the Pinatubo eruption were
caused by roof collapse due to thick accumulation of ash that had been moistened by the rains occurring at that
time. Burial by tephra can break power and communication lines, cause damage to or loss of vegetation, and
can result in destruction to agricultural lands buried by more than 10 cm.

Figure 5.4-9. Accumulation of ash from Pinatubo’s

1991 eruption on roof of buildings in the Subic Bay
Naval Base. The ash which was saturated ith water
from the rains caused the collapse of many roofs of
residential units and other types of buildings
around Pinatubo.
Tephra fall and ballistic projectiles also endanger life, property, and the environment in the following
ways:

• Small scoria pieces can be embedded in wood and can even dent metals.

Could you imagine what a falling object the size of a house can do?
Though ballistic projectiles usually occur only close to the volcano, the high impact is the source of hazard
from large volcanic projectiles.

Do you know how much force of the falling fragments exert?

The kinetic energy of impact of a volcanic projectile is dependent on both mass and termina velocity, both
being a function of projectile diameter and projectile density.
• Even thin (<2 cm) falls of ash can damage critical facilities
(e.g. hospitals, electric generating plants, and pumping
stations); can short circuit electric-transmission facilities,
telephone lines, radio and television transmitters; and block
the flow of surface-drainage systems.

• Ash clogs filters and vents of motors, industrial machines,

and nuclear power plants; may clog air filters of vehicles
including those of jet engines; and abrasion of moving parts
(bearings, brakes, and transmissions) and bodies of
automobiles.
• Airborne ash can reduce visibility to zero and turn day to night by blocking sunlight.

• Volcanic projectiles have temperatures above ignition points. Initial temperature of projectiles generated
from new magma may reach up to 1100°C. Upon impact, temperatures may well be above the ignition point
for vegetation and a variety of man-made objects.

• Some pyroclastic falls contain toxic gases, acids, salts, and chemicals that can be absorbed by plants and
water bodies, which can be dangerous to people and other living things.

• Tephra can change rainfall or runoff relationships. Low permeability of hardened ash deposits leads to
increased runoff, accelerated erosion, and floods; thick, coarse-grained deposits retain water and eliminate
surface runoff.
Table 5.4-1. Principal Health Effects of Ash and Main Preventive Measures
How Tephra Falls and Ballistic Projectiles Are Dispersed or Hazard Zoning

Ballistic projectiles are ejected with trajectory angles

>45 deg, although there are cases where it is lower
than this (e.g., ~30 deg.). Ejection velocities are in the
range of 75 m/s to 320 m/s. How far the projectiles go
from the vent partly depends on the size of ejected
fragments. Ballistic projectiles had been found to rarely
go beyond 5 km from the vent. Examples of distances
reached by fragments of various sizes are shown in
Table 5.4-2.
 Tephra fall is one of the least dangerous volcanic hazards but it is quite troublesome to a larger number of
people because of its tremendous reach. However, predicting where the fragments will land, how big will these
be, and how thick the accumulations will be is a very difficult task. One source of difficulty in predicting the
thickness and size of tephra that might fall in one place is the size of the eruption itself and the volume of
materials it carries high up into the air.

Which compositional type of volcanoes would you expect to have more voluminous tephra fall deposits?
Can you explain why in terms of explosiveness?

The direction and strength of the wind is another source of variability not only in predicting the size and
thickness but also in anticipating how far and wide tephra deposits can go. An ash-laden eruption column can
reach as high as 50 km from the volcanic vent.
 Ash dispersal would depend on wind direction and speed which both change with altitude, Significant
variation occurs between the troposphere and the stratosphere (about 10 km above sea level). Wind above the
stratosphere has a no convective circulation pattern that could be quite different from that in the troposphere. At
low levels the wind pattern is turbulent. Volcanologists thus tend to draw a circular zone covering just about any
direction for a certain distance. At higher levels, where the prevailing winds take over, atmospheric flow is more
uniform in direction.

That means, tephra is expected to fall preferentially in a certain direction depending on the prevailing wind
direction at the time of the eruption of high columns of tephra. In general, greater amounts of tephra fall out of
the ash cloud near the vent so that airfall deposits typically thin away from the vent (Figure 5.4-11). In the next
activity, you will apply this and other principles of tephra fall distribution to formulate tephra fall danger zones.

Figure 5.4-11. The size of ash particles that fall to the

ground generally decreases exponentially with increasing
distance from a volcano. Also, the range in grain size of volcanic
ash typically diminishes downwind from a volcano (becoming
progressively smaller). At specific locations, however, the
distribution of ash particle sizes canvary widely (see the Mount
St. Helens example). (Johnston, 1997).
Mitigating the Effects

With the tremendous impact and heat that ballistic projectiles bring, the best thing to do is to stay
away from the area close to the crater. The safe distance varies with each volcano but is usually several
kilometers around the volcanic center. The design of any shelter from ballistic projectiles would need to
recognize that the size of potential bombs within this zone prevents the construction of any bomb proof
shelter. Beyond this zone, a precaution that can be taken from smaller hot fragments is covering windows
facing the crater with corrugated iron sheets. Thick steel roof sheets as roofing materials can provide
protection.
During a tephra fall, the first priority is to seek refuge beyond the reach of its effects. Mobility issues
during an emergency, however, might prevent most people from doing so. As long as where you are is not
also affected by the other volcanic hazards, there may be no need to go farther. This would then entail
adopting precautionary measures to keep safe from the harmful effects of tephra fall. These include
personal measures that can be taken before, during, and after, a tephra fall. Some of the measures need to
be addressed at the community and local government level.
 Local government units and utility operators can take measures to avoid mishaps, losses, and disruption
of essential services. Some of these include design filters for various types of machinery.

Do you know what ash can do to moving parts of machines?

Clear steps should also be taken before a tephra fall to protect public utilities such as waste water
disposal equipment (e.g., covering, housing, or sealing of equipment with plastic) and telecommunications
facilities. Rerouting of commercial flights should also be done to avoid tephra fall danger zones. Authorities
must also seriously consider preventing sight-seeing and press flights from buzzing the erupting volcano.
Precautions for Tephra Fall
BEFORE

• Protective clothing and high-efficiency dust masks should be

made available and placed in easily accessible points before
volcano related emergencies which are likely to experience
tephra fall.

• Design roof orientation and pitch to discourage thick tephra

buildups.

• Strengthen roofs and walls to withstand loading and

projectile impacts.
DURING
• If no approved mask is available, a fabric
• Wear protective clothing and high- mask improvised from handkerchiefs, cloth,
efficiency dust masks. or clothing will filter out the larger ash
particles which may contribute to throat
and eye irritation. Dampening the fabric
with water will improve its effectiveness.
• Patients with chronic bronchitis, emphysema, • Keep all doors closed when there is a heavy
and asthma are advised to stay inside and avoid accumulation of ash.
unnecessary exposure to ash.
• Keep a proper distance between vehicles when
driving. Vehicular accidents are more likely to occur • Clear tephra from roofs as it accumulates.
because of reduced visibility.
• Wear respirators or wet cloths over the mouth and nose to
reduce inhalation of tephra and gases. Tephra can contain
harmful gases adsorbed on particle as acid aerosols and salt
particles.
 AFTER

• Remove or stabilize tephra on the ground • Handle the ash in open, well-ventilated
after a fall to prohibit reworking. areas, and wet the dust whenever
possible to prevent its movement.
• Wear goggles or corrective eyeglasses instead • Personnel not essential to the emergency should
of contact lenses to protect eyes from be kept inside and made to strictly observe all
irritation caused by fine ash. safety precautions during cleanup.
SECTION 5.2 LAHARS
PRESENTED BY: ARANADOR
Lahars

Whenever a topic shifts to lahars, the name of a lahar victim, Omayra Sánchez, always comes to mind.
Omayra was a 13-year old schoolgirl in Armero, a town that was badly stricken by the 1985 lahars cascading
down the slopes of Nevado del Ruiz in Colombia. These are the deadliest lahars in volcanic history. The
Armero tragedy is Colombia's worst natural disaster (with 23,000 fatalities) and one of the 20th century's
worst disasters. The deadliest Philippine lahar ever was from Mayon, which buried the Cagsawa church in
Daraga, Albay in 1814,ribe

The November 13, 1985, lahars from Nevada

del Ruiz in Colombia cascaded into the lowlands
through the lagunillas River, burying the town of
Armero which is about 70 kilometers from Nevado
del Ruiz. Omayra Sanchez is being aided by rescue
workers and journalists during her entrapment by
the lahar
 The rushing water from the upper slopes of Nevado del Ruiz destroyed the house of the Omayra family
in Armero Her legs were pinned by concrete. Her rescue was extremely difficult. It is challenging. Her hands
and head above water, she maintained mental strength during her hour ordeal. She was surrounded by local
and international media, as well as heroic rescuers workers. In this case, however, none of those around her
could do anything to help her. Because of the lack of surgical equipment and medical facilities. Omayra’s
story circulated and triggered unpleasant debates among local and national agencies in Colombia. None of
these exchanges, however, could bring back Onmayras’ life. Was there a way the Armero tragedy could have
been avoided? Was it clear to local and national government agencies said that Armero was a natural
dumping place for lahar deposits. By rivers coming from the upper slopes of Nevado del Ruiz? Would
Omayra and thousands more would still be alive if hazard maps had been used and prepared for long before
the tragedy. What plans or measures were well executed? Were the authorities and the people of Armero
alerted? That a lahar was on its way?
After nearly a year of minor earthquakes and steam explosions from Nevado del Ruiz, the volcano
exploded violently on November 13, 1985. The initial blast began at 3:06 p.m., and two hours later pumice
fragments and ash were showering down on Armero. However, the citizens of Amero remained calm. They
were placated by reassuring messages from the mayor over radio, and from a local priest over the church
public address system. Nevertheless, the Red Cross ordered an evacuation of the town at 7:00 p.m.
However, shortly after the evacuation order the ash stopped falling and the evacuation was called off.
What are lahars ?
A lahar is the process wherein a wet cement-like
mixture of volcanic material and water is added. Flows
down the slopes of a volcano. In Javanese (an Indonesian
dialect), lahar actually means lava or lava flow, but
volcanologist have adopted the term to this volcanic
event. Lahar usually carries fresh eruption material like
pyroclastic flows and tephra falls. It also picks up older
volcanic deposits along the river channel. Despite the
fact that lahars are debris-laden, like wet concrete, these
are quite mobile. Large lahars, which can flow at a rate of
several tens of meters per second, are impossible for
people to outrun. The deposits that lahars leave behind
are like dry concrete, sometimes with boulders as big as
a house scattered everywhere. These big chunks of rock
can be used as indicators of the presence of lahars that
have occurred during historic times or in the recent
geologic past.
Figure 5.5-2. Lahars were deposited at different times following Pinatubo
volcanos 1991 eruption. Pyroclastic flows and Tephra falls on the upper
slopes Of Pinatubo were the sources of volcanic materials of the lahars.
The lahars took advantage of the major and more minor rivers around
Pinatubo in Zambales, Pampanga, and Tarlac. 1) 1991 Pyroclastic flows; 2)
Lahars; 3) Isopachs (or lines of equal Thickness) of airfall deposits in Cm; 4)
Active lahar channels; 5) Provincial boundaries; 6) Towns

How are lahars generated?

Many lahars are formed by intense rainfall during an eruption. Rainwater can easily erode loose volcanic
material deposited on the upper slopes of a volcano or along the path of a river on its way down the slopes
(Figure 5.5-2). The may come from other sources. Eruptions alone can trigger lahars directly by melting snow
and icecap. In the case of Nevado del Ruiz, the melting of icecap by the hot pyroclastic flows provided the water
that mobilized fresh volcanic materials on the upper reaches of the volcano. The breaching of the dam or crater
lake by the eruption may also provide the water that loosens and carries volcanic material from the upper
slopes.
Lahar Deposits

• Poor sorting (mix of different sizes of fragments); fragments are from clay-sized to boulder-sized (depends on
source materials; boulders are more common in Mayon Lahars than in Pinatubo lahars)

• May contain a wide variety of clasts (heterolithic)

• Matrix-supported- means pebbles, rocks, and boulders are not touching each other; majority or the outcrop is
Silt, sand, or clay

• May have reverse-graded base (smaller fragments are at the lower part)

• May show some clast imbrication or preferred orientation of the larger fragments

• Clasts are typically angular to sub-angular

 Important feature of the lahar runout deposits is a series of curved dish-like structures. Each convex-upward
dish is formed by a thin concentration of finer and darker sediment. Scientists interpret these structures as
resulting from the expulsion of water from the deposit shortly after deposition. An important feature of the lahar
runout deposits is a series of curved dish-like structures. Each convex-upward dish is formed by a thin
concentration of finer and darker sediment. Scientists interpret these structures as resulting from the expulsion of
water from the deposit shortly after deposition.

Lahar-Runout Flow Deposit

• Displays better bedding than lahar; shows better sorting than lahar

• Normal grading (above a possible reverse graded base)

• Better clast imbrication than lahar

• Boulders not as common

 By adding more water and eroding rock debris along the way, lahars can grow more than 10 times their
initial size. A lahar eventually wanes in size and loses its heavy load of sediment as it moves farther away.

The occurrence of lahar favors strato volcanoes (or those that tend to erupt explosively), tall and steep
volcanoes, and those with weak or easily erodible volcanic rock layers for source or lahar material. Although
heavy rainfalls provide the water for lahar, it may not be necessary in volcanoes with crater lakes or snow-
covered tops.
Many faces of lahars
Water in rivers normally contains less than 20% sediment by volume (normal streamflow). Add more
sediments and it transforms into a dangerous kind of streamflow. In a strict sense, lahar refers to the dense,
viscous flows of a mixture of 60% volcanic debris and 40% water by volume. More commonly, it refers to a
flow with a wide range of volcanic debris (20% or more by volume) and water mixture. Lahar also refers to
the deposits formed by lahar flows. Dilute pure lahars, called hyper concentrated streamflow, contain 20 %
to about 60% volcanic debris by volume. Another scheme uses 6Wt. as a measure of sediment concentration
(Figure 5.5-3).

Figure 5.5-3. Each type of lahar of water and

sediment. Modified from: deposit is formed by a
process with corresponding mix Smith and Lowe,
1991
 Lahar deposits are formed similarly as those formed by stream in non-volcanic areas. Large landslides
may deposit loose materials along the course of a river which can be carried away as non-volcanic debris
flow. Sometimes too much sediment load is available and at another time or place along the river, there is
too little of it. In some instances, the supply of water along a rivers course becomes the determining factor
in the type of flow and the proportion of sediment involved. In the same way, flow transformations occur
between normal stream flow and lahars. Sediment-poor normal streamflow may become enriched with
more sediment and become lahars. Lahars become diluted by involving more water or by denying supply or
sediment to be transformed to hyper concentrated streamflow. Hyper concentrated stream flows form lahar
deposits called lahar- runout flows. Figure 5.5-3 shows the difference between the two end members of
lahar based on the type of flow involved, sediment concentration, and on the type of deposits formed.
EFFECTS OF LAHARS
PRESENTED BY: FLORABEL
• As non-volcanic debris flows, lahars move as fluid
masses with the general consistency of wet concrete.
• Lahars are dangerous because of the large volume of
materials involved and the speed by which they
deliver these materials.
• Lahars can travel as far as 300 km and at speeds of
about 70 km/hr.
EFFECTS OF LAHARS

• The direct impact of a lahar's turbulent flow

front or from the boulders and logs carried by
the lahar can easily crush, abrade, or shear off
at ground level just about anything in the path
of a lahar.
 BY DESTROYING BRIDGES AND KEY ROADS, LAHARS
CAN ALSO TRAP PEOPLE IN AREAS VULNERABLE TO
OTHER HAZARDOUS VOLCANIC ACTIVITY, ESPECIALLY
IF THE LAHARS LEAVE DEPOSITS THAT ARE TOO DEEP
TOO SOFT, OR TOO HOT TO CROSS.
• After a volcanic eruption, the erosion of new loose volcanic
deposits in the headwaters of rivers can lead to severe
flooding and extremely high rates of sedimentation in areas far
downstream from a volcano.

• Over a period of weeks to years, post-eruption lahars and high-

sediment discharges triggered by intense rainfall frequently
deposit rock debris that can bury entire towns and valuable
agricultural land.

• As the area behind the blockage fills with water, areas upstream
become inundated.
Taming Lahars

• During a lahars crisis, effective dissemination of lahar hazard information is necessary. This involves
educating the local residents, local authorities, and national civil defense organizations.

• A good monitoring and warning system should be in place, just in case to alert people early enough so that
they can evacuate to a safer place.

• Methods that had been employed in Mayon and Pinatubo include flow sensors along lahar channels and
monitoring of rainfall intensity and duration.

• Methods include building retention basins, alternate channels, tunnels, and concrete structures such as
dams across the river channel and dikes parallel to the channel.
• Other strategies are designed to promote slope stability at the source area.

• Prevention of crater breakout had also been suggested. One option is to stabilize the natural crater lake dam
at the crater lake outlet.

• Another option is the excavation of a channel that allows draining water in crater lakes to a safe level.
SECTION 5.6 VOLCANIC
DEBRIS AVALANCHE
PRESENTED BY: TORREFIEL
What are Volcanic Debris Avalanche?

Volcanic debris avalanches are landslides that occur in

volcanic slopes. A debris avalanche is not your ordinary
landslide. Compared with non-volcanic landslides, debris
avalanches are faster and their deposits more far-reaching. This
is mainly due to the large amount of material involved. Debris
avalanche may involve collapse of the volcano‘s flank or of one
big sector of the volcano including that of its top. You might
wonder what volcanoes have, which non-volcanic slopes lack,
that make massive collapses possible. Pipes that feed shallow
magma bodies and planes of weakness (fractures) that also act
as conduits of rising magma are features that are unique to
volcanoes. Non-volcanic environments lack these factors
though other conditions that make slopes prone to landslides
are shared by both volcanic and non-volcanic landforms.
Recognizing a Debris Avalanche

Debris avalanches rarely occur during the life of a volcano but surprisingly, a large number. Known
volcanoes had experienced a debris avalanche. Landforms that a unique to debris avalanche areas are keys to
identifying these volcanoes. The occurrence of debris avalanche leaves a very prominent gap in the cone of
the volcano as well as a landscape-altering voluminous deposit. The gap is called amphitheater because of
the horseshoe-like shape of the crater left behind by the volcano's collapse (Figure 56-4a and b)most
amphitheaters range in width from 1 to 3 km. Compared with non-volcanic landslide source areas, the
sidewalls of the amphitheaters are higher and sharply rises above a genty sloping floor
Condition and triggering mechanism of volcanic debris avalanche

Rising magma, earthquakes, weakening due to hydrothermal alteration and heavy rain can trigger a
debris avalanche of this unstable material. Avalanched material follows valleys as it moves down the side of
the volcano under the force of gravity. Debris avalanches can be wet, dry or both, and if wet, an avalanche
may evolve and continue to flow further down slope as a lahar.
How Deadly Can a Debris Avalanche Be?

A debris avalanche is a nightmare both to a volcano and to those exposed to its dangers. Because of the
speed and the volume of material involved, it is the worst possible thing that could be expected from a volcano.
One sector of a volcano can travel down at speeds of 100 to 250 km/hr and be all over the place. A large debris
avalanche can reach as far as 120 km from where it breaks away and can cover an area as much as 500-1500
km². All of these can happen in Just several minutes.

Volcanic debris avalanches have so far caused the death of more than 20,000 people in the past 400 years.
The deadliest volcanic debris avalanche during historical times was that of Mt. Mayuyama which occurred in
1792 near Unzen Volcano in Japan. The debris falling to the sea generated a tsunami that killed about 15,000
people, Other historical debris avalanches that generated tsunami include those of Kamagatake volcano on
Hokkaido Island, Japan in 1640, Oshima-Oshima Volcano on Hokkaido Island, Japan in 1741, and Augustine
Volcano, Alaska in 1883. Apart from generating a tsunami, a debris avalanche can cause the following to happen:
 Debris avalanches greatly alter the pre-existing topography by creating deep horseshoe-shaped craters
and by burying and destroying everything in their paths. The newly-formed crater resulting from the debris
avalanche at Mt. St. Helens is about 2 km x 3 km and about 600 m deep. A chaotic landscape marked by
numerous small hills and depressions replaces the scenery.

Debris avalanche deposits that are thick enough can block streams to form lakes. Sudden break-out of the
lake water could generate lahars and floods.

Lahars and floods can be a direct result of the dewatering of a debris avalanche deposit. The debris
avalanche deposit can be saturated with water and may contain snow and Ice blocks from the volcano's tops.
IS DEBRIS AVALANCHE
COMMON IN THE PHILIPPINES?
PRESENTED BY: AUGUIS
Is Debris Avalanche Common in the Philippines?

A total of twelve debris avalanche deposits had been positively identified among the more than 200
volcanoes in the Philippines. When mapping of all amphitheater craters and deposits of debris avalanche
deposits is done, it is believed that about 50 cases will qualify as debris avalanche.

The farthest distance the deposits had travelled is 33 km. The largest debris avalanche are associated with
Banahao and Canlaon. (5 and 13 km) volcanoes. Binintiang Malaki (0.002 km), which is one of the small
stratovolcanos of Taal, is the smallest of these (0.0002 km).

The rockslide-debris avalanche is one of several disastrous landslides to have occurred in the Philippines in
the last twenty years.
Débris Avalanche Danger Zones and Mitigation

The effort to keep safe from the effects of debris avalanche is two-pronged.

First, the coming of a debris avalanche must be anticipated, as much as possible.

Second, areas prone to debris avalanche must be identified through the preparation of hazard maps, with
or without a reliable capability to predict debris avalanche.

Debris avalanche events are difficult to anticipate. There are too many unknowns associated with
magmatic systems and seismicity. However, there are instances where predictive techniques might work.
Examples of warning parameters for eruption-triggered avalanches include seismicity, volcanic activity, and
deformation. The 1980 debris avalanche. at Mt. St. Helens was preceded repeatedly by earthquakes within
two months before the failure of its northern sector.

Although slope failures are difficult to predict, there are hints that people may use to alert themselves.
These may also be relayed to experts for evaluation of potential for volcanic slope failure, however large or
small it may be. These include:
• Sudden appearance of springs, seeps, or saturated ground
• New cracks and/or bulges in the ground, pavements or sidewalks
• Soil moving away from foundations
• Broken water lines and other underground utilities
• Tilting of telephone poles, trees, retaining walls, or fences
• Offset fence lines
• Down-dropped road beds
• Sudden rise or decrease in stream water levels that is not related to rainfall
• A faint rumbling sound (frequency increases as landslide nears)
• Unusual sounds, such as trees cracking or boulders knocking together, might indicate moving
debris
• Volcanic activity or nearby seismicity
 Even if debris avalanches can be predicted, evacuation is the only option available. There is nothing that
can be done to stop it nor is there any protective or mitigating measure that one can adopt.

The hazard can be mitigated only by avoiding debris avalanche-prone areas long before any threat or by
evacuating endangered areas in case of an impending event.

Erosion causes removal of support of a volcano's slopes, hence, increasing the chances of collapse. Thus,
controlling erosion can help in preventing the occurrence of debris avalanche.
What To Do Before, During,
and After An Eruption
BEFORE THE ERUPTION
1. Evacuate immediately if you live or are staying within the radius of affected areas. Long before the
explosion, affected areas would have been given a warning to evacuate the premises by local government
units.

2. Stay informed with local safety plans and evacuation areas. Whether it’s through local radio, TV news, etc.
Just make sure that you’re getting reliable information from trusted sources and not potentially dangerous
misinformation from fake accounts.

3. Charge your electronics. Keep your mobile devices and power banks charged in case of power interruptions.

4. Know disaster hotlines and other emergency hotlines (e.g., 911).

5. Make provisions for transportation and communication.

6. Prepare food and water supplies, medicines, and survival kits that you can bring when the need for
evacuation arises.
DURING THE ERUPTION
1. Use an N95 dust mask to protect yourself from pulmo-respiratory injuries and diseases. If these are
unavailable, use a damp handkerchief or makeshift one from an old t-shirt.

2. Protect your skin and eyes with proper clothing and glasses or goggles. Ashfall is sharp and abrasive, so
don’t rub if any comes into contact with your skin or eyes. Secure your pets inside your home. Because
volcanic ash is harmful for them too.

3. If you are outside, seek cover immediately in case of rock or ash falls.

4. If you are inside, stay tuned to the news to keep informed of recent developments. Close all doors and
windows. Dampen curtains to keep fine particles from coming through. If you are driving a vehicle, pull
over and stop if there is a heavy ashfall.

5. Cover food and water containers to avoid contamination with ash. Wash all utensils thoroughly before
eating. Fine ash particles may have settled on them.
AFTER THE ERUPTION
1. Do not leave your home or indoor shelters until notified by the local government that it is safe to do so.
Evacuate to safer grounds only when notified.

2. Keep a watchful eye on your kids or loved ones who may be tempted to go out to see what’s going on
outside.

3. Wear protection. Use masks, glasses/goggles, long sleeves, pants, and shoes when clearing out ash to
protect your lungs, skin and eyes.

4. Clean your gutters and roof with water after clearing out the ash to prevent corrosion.

5. Wait for further announcements from LGUs or national news related to the volcanic eruption.
Thank You for Watching :]
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