Chapter 5

Lecture Outline

5-1
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 Histology
• Study of Tissues
• Epithelial Tissue
• Connective Tissue
• Nervous and Muscular Tissue
• Intercellular Junctions, Glands and
Membranes
• Tissue Growth, Development, Death and
Repair
5-2
 Table 05.01

The Four Primary Tissue Classes

Type Definition Representative Locations
Epithelial Tissue composed of layers of closely spaced cells that cover organ surfaces, form Epidermis
glands, and serve for protection, secretion, and absorption Inner lining of digestive tract
Liver and other glands

Connective Tissue with usually more matrix than cell volume, often specialized to support and Tendons and ligaments
protect organs and to bind other tissues and organs to each other Cartilage and bone
Blood

Nervous Tissue containing excitable cells specialized for rapid transmission of coded Brain
information to other cells Spinal cord
Nerves

Muscular Tissue composed of elongated, excitable muscle cells specialized for contraction Skeletal muscles
Heart (cardiac muscle)
Walls of viscera (smooth muscle)

Photos (Epithelial): ©Ed Reschke/Getty Images; (Connective): Dennis Strete/McGraw-Hill Education; (Nervous, Muscular): Ed Reschke
 The Study of Tissues
• 50 trillion cells of 200 different cell types
• four broad categories of tissues
– epithelial tissue
– connective tissue
– nervous tissue
– muscular tissue
• organ - structure with discrete boundaries
that is composed of two or more tissue types
• histology (microscopic anatomy) – the study
of tissues and how they are arranged into
organs 5-4
 The Primary Tissue Classes
• tissue – a group of similar cells and cell products that arise
from the same region of the embryo and work together to
perform a specific structural or physiological role in an organ.

• matrix – (extracellular material) is composed of :

– fibrous proteins
– a clear gel known as ground substance , tissue fluid,
extracellular fluid (ECF), interstitial fluid, or tissue gel

5-5
 Sectioning Solid Objects
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• sectioning a cell
with a centrally
located nucleus
• some slices
miss the cell
nucleus
• in some the
nucleus is
smaller
(a)
5-6
Figure 5.1a
 Sectioning Hollow Structures
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• cross section of
blood vessel, gut,
or other tubular
organ.

• longitudinal
section of a
sweat gland.
notice what a
(c)

single slice could

look like.
(b)
5-7
Figure 5.1b,c
 Types of Tissue Sections
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Longitudinal sections
• longitudinal section (l.s.)
– tissue cut along long direction of
organ

• cross section (c.s. or x.s.) or

Cross sections
transverse section (t.s.)
– tissue cut perpendicular to
length of organ

• oblique section
Oblique sections
– tissue cut at angle between
cross and longitudinal section

Figure 5.2 5-8

 Epithelial Tissue
• consists of a flat sheet of closely adhering cells
• one or more cells thick
• upper surface usually exposed to the environment or an internal
space in the body
• covers body surface
• lines body cavities
• forms the external and internal linings of many organs
• constitutes most glands
• extracellular material is so thin it is not visible with a light
microscope
• epithelia allows no room for blood vessels
• lie on a layer of loose connective tissue and depend on its blood
vessels for nourishment and waste removal 5-9
 Simple vs. Stratified Epithelia
• Simple epithelium • Stratified epithelium
– contains one layer of cells – contains more than one layer
– named by shape of cells – named by shape of apical cells

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(a) Classes of
epithelium

Pseudostratified
Simple Stratified
columnar

(b) Cell
shapes

Squamous Cuboidal Columnar

5-10
Figure 5.3
 Simple Epithelia
• four types of simple epithelia
• three named for their cell shapes
– simple squamous (thin scaly cells)
– simple cuboidal (square or round cells)
– simple columnar (tall narrow cells)

• fourth type –
– pseudostratified columnar
• not all cells reach the free surface
• shorter cells are covered over by taller ones
• looks stratified
• every cell reaches the basement membrane

• goblet cells – wineglass-shaped mucus secreting cells

in simple columnar and pseudostratified epithelia
5-11
 Simple Squamous Epithelium
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Squamous epithelial cells Nuclei of smooth muscle

Basement membrane

(a) (b)

a: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Dennis Strete, photographer

Figure 5.4a Figure 5.4b,i

• single row of thin cells
• permits rapid diffusion or transport of substances
• secretes serous fluid
• alveoli, glomeruli, endothelium, and serosa 5-12
 Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
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Lumen of kidney tubule Cuboidal epithelial cells Basement membrane

(a) (b)
a: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Dennis Strete, photographer

Figure 5.5a Figure 5.5b,i

• single layer of square or round cells
• absorption and secretion, mucus production and movement
• liver, thyroid, mammary and salivary glands, bronchioles,
and kidney tubules 5-13
 Simple Columnar Epithelium
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Brush border Connective Basement Goblet Columnar

(microvilli) tissue membrane Nuclei cell cells

(b)
Figure 5.6b,i
• single row tall, narrow cells
– oval nuclei in basal half of cell
– brush border of microvilli, ciliated in some organs, may possess
goblet cells
• absorption and secretion; mucus secretion
• lining of GI tract, uterus, kidney and uterine tubes 5-14
 Pseudostratified Epithelium
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Cilia Basement membrane Basal cells Goblet cell

(a) (b)
a: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Dennis Strete, photographer

Figure 5.7a Figure 5.7b,i

• looks multilayered; some not reaching free surface; all touch basement
membrane
– nuclei at several layers
– with cilia and goblet cells
• secretes and propels mucus
• respiratory tract and portions of male urethra 5-15
 Stratified Epithelia
• range from 2 to 20 or more layers of cells
• some cells resting directly on others
• only the deepest layer attaches to the basement membrane
• three stratified epithelia are named for the shapes of their surface cells
– stratified squamous
– stratified cuboidal
– stratified columnar (rare)
• fourth type
– transitional epithelium
• most widespread epithelium in the body
• deepest layers undergo continuous mitosis
– their daughter cells push toward the surface and become flatter as they
migrate farther upward
– finally die and flake off – exfoliation
• two kinds of stratified squamous epithelia
– keratinized – found on skin surface, abrasion resistant
– nonkeratinized – lacks surface layer of dead cells 5-16
Keratinized Stratified Squamous
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Dense irregular
Dead squamous cells Living epithelial cells connective tissue

Areolar tissue

(a) (b)
a: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Joe DeGrandis, photographer

Figure 5.8a Figure 5.8b,i

• multiple cell layers with cells becoming flat and scaly

toward surface
• epidermis; palms and soles heavily keratinized
• resists abrasion; retards water loss through skin; resists
5-17
penetration by pathogenic organisms
Nonkeratinized Stratified Squamous
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Living epithelial cells Connective tissue

(a) (b)

a: © Ed Reschke

Figure 5.9a Figure 5.9b,i

• same as keratinized epithelium without the surface layer of
dead cells
• tongue, oral mucosa, esophagus and vagina
• resists abrasion and penetration of pathogens 5-18
 Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
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Cuboidal cells Epithelium Connective tissue

(a) (b)
a: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Dennis Strete, photographer

Figure 5.10a Figure 5.10b,i

• two or more cell layers; surface cells square or round
• secretes sweat; sperm production and produces ovarian hormones
• sweat gland ducts; ovarian follicles and seminiferous
tubules
5-19
 Transitional Epithelium
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Basement Connective Binucleate

membrane tissue epithelial cell

(a) (b)
a: Johnny R. Howze

Figure 5.11a Figure 5.11b,i

• multilayered epithelium surface cells that change from
round to flat when stretched
• allows for filling of urinary tract
5-20
• ureter and bladder, uterus
 Connective Tissue
• connective tissue – a type of tissue in which cells
usually occupy less space than the extracellular
material
• binds organs to each other
• support and protect organs
• most cells of connective tissue are not in direct
contact with each other
– separated by extracellular material

• highly vascular – richly supplied with blood vessels

• most abundant, widely distributed, and histologically
variable of the primary tissues 5-21
Functions of Connective Tissue
• binding of organs – tendons and ligaments
• support – bones and cartilage
• physical protection – cranium, ribs, sternum
• immune protection – white blood cells attack
foreign invaders
• movement – bones provide lever system
• storage – fat, calcium, phosphorus
• heat production – metabolism of brown fat in
infants
• transport - blood 5-22
 Adipose Tissue
• adipose tissue (fat) – tissue in which adipocytes are the dominant cell type
• space between adipocytes is occupied by areolar tissue, reticular tissue, and blood
capillaries
• fat is the body’s primary energy reservoir
• the quantity of stored triglyceride and the number of adipocytes are quite stable in a
person
– fat is recycled continuously to prevent stagnation
– new triglycerides are constantly synthesized and stored
– old triglycerides are hydrolyzed and released into circulation

• provides thermal insulation

• anchors and cushions organs such as eyeball, kidneys
• contributes to body contours – female breast and hips
• on average, women have more fat than men
• too little fat can reduce female fertility
• most adult fat is called white fat
• brown fat – in fetuses, infants, children – a heat generating tissue
5-23
 Adipose Tissue
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Blood Adipocyte Lipid in

vessel nucleus adipocyte

(a) (b)

a: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Dennis Strete, photographer

Figure 5.18a Figure 5.18b,i

• empty-looking cells with thin margins; nucleus pressed
against cell membrane
• energy storage, insulation, cushioning
– subcutaneous fat and organ packing
– brown fat (hibernating animals) produces heat 5-24
 Cartilage
• supportive connective tissue with flexible, rubbery matrix
• gives shape to ear, tip of nose, and larynx
• chondroblasts immature cartilage cells
• chondrocytes – mature cartilage cells
• No blood vessels
– diffusion brings nutrients and removes wastes
– heals slowly
– hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage and elastic cartilage

5-25
 Hyaline Cartilage
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Cell
Matrix nest Perichondrium Lacunae Chondrocytes

(a) (b)

a: © Ed Reschke

Figure 5.19a Figure 5.19b,i

• clear, glassy microscopic appearance because of unusual
fineness of the collagen fibers
• articular cartilage, costal cartilage, trachea, larynx, fetal skeleton
• eases joint movement, holds airway open, moves vocal cords during
speech
5-26
 Elastic Cartilage
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Elastic
Perichondrium fibers Lacunae Chondrocytes

(a) (b)

a: © Ed Reschke

Figure 5.20a Figure 5.20b,i

• cartilage containing elastic fibers
• provides flexible, elastic support
– external ear and epiglottis
5-27
 Fibrocartilage
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Collagen
fibers Chondrocytes

(a) (b)
a: Dr. Alvin Telser

Figure 5.21a Figure 5.21b,i

• cartilage containing large, coarse bundles of collagen fibers
• resists compression and absorbs shock
– pubic symphysis, menisci, and intervertebral discs

5-28
 Bone
• ‘bone’ has two meanings:
– an organ of the body; femur, mandible; composed of multiple
tissue types
– bone tissue – osseous tissue – makes up most of the mass of
bone

• two forms of osseous tissue

– spongy bone - spongy in appearance
• delicate struts of bone - trabeculae
• covered by compact bone
• found in heads of long bones and in middle of flat bones such as the
sternum
– compact bone – denser calcified tissue with no visible spaces
• more complex arrangement
• cells and matrix surround vertically oriented blood vessels in long
bones
5-29
 Blood
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• fluid connective tissue Platelets Neutrophils Lymphocyte Erythrocytes Monocyte

• transports cells and dissolved

matter from place to place
• plasma – blood’s liquid
ground substance
• formed elements – cells and
cell fragments
– erythrocytes – red blood
cells – transport O2 and CO2
– leukocytes – white blood (b)
cells – defense against
infection and other diseases Figure 5.23b,i
– platelets – cell fragments
involved in clotting and other
mechanisms
5-30
 Excitable Tissues
Muscular & Nervous Tissue
• excitability – a characteristic of all living cells
– developed to highest degree in nervous and muscular
tissues

• membrane potential – electrical charge difference

(voltage) that occurs across the plasma
membranes is the basis for their excitation
– respond quickly to outside stimulus by means of
changes in membrane potential
– nerves – changes result in rapid transmission of signals
to other cells
– muscles – changes result in contraction, shortening of
the cell 5-31
 Nervous Tissue Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• nervous tissue – specialized for Nuclei of glial cells Axon Neurosoma Dendrites
communication by electrical and
chemical signals
• consists of neurons (nerve cells) –
– detect stimuli
– respond quickly
– transmit coded information rapidly to
other cells

• and neuroglia (glial)

– protect and assist neurons
– ‘housekeepers’ of nervous system

(b)

Figure 5.24b,i

5-32
 Muscular Tissue
• muscular tissue – elongated cells that are
specialized to contract in response to stimulation
• primary job is to exert physical force on other
tissues and organs
• creates movements involved in body and limb
movement, digestion, waste elimination, breathing,
speech, and blood circulation
• important source of body heat
• three types of muscle: skeletal, cardiac, and
smooth 5-33
 Skeletal Muscle
• long, threadlike cells – muscle fibers
• most attach to bone
• exceptions – in tongue, upper esophagus, facial muscles, some
sphincter muscles – (ringlike or cufflike muscles that open and close
body passages)
• contains multiple nuclei adjacent to plasma membrane
• striations – alternating dark and light bands
• voluntary – conscious control over skeletal muscles
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display.
Nuclei Striations Muscle fiber

(a) (b)

a: © Ed Reschke

Figure 5.25a Figure 5.25b,i 5-34

 Cardiac Muscle
• limited to the heart
• myocytes or cardiocytes are much shorter, branched, and notched at
ends
• contain one centrally located nucleus surrounded by light staining
glycogen
• intercalated discs join cardiocytes end to end
– provide electrical and mechanical connection
• striated, and involuntary (not under conscious control)
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Intercalated discs Striations Glycogen

(a) (b)

© Ed Reschke

5-35
Figure 5.26a Figure 5.26b,i
 Smooth Muscle
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Nuclei Muscle cells

(a) (b)

a: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Dennis Strete, photographer

Figure 5.27a Figure 5.27b,i

• lacks striations and is involuntary
• relatively short, fusiform cells (thick in middle, tapered at ends)
• one centrally located nucleus
• visceral muscle – forms layers of digestive, respiratory, and urinary tract:
blood vessels, uterus and other viscera
• propels contents through an organ, regulates diameter of blood vessels
5-36
 Intercellular Junctions
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Tight junction
Plasma membrane
Membrane protein
Intercellular space
Membrane
Desmosome protein
Intermediate filaments Cell nucleus
Glycoprotein
Protein plaque
Intercellular space
Plasma membrane

Gap junction
Pore Basement membrane
Connexon
Pore
Hemidesmosome
Proteins
Figure 5.28

• intercellular junctions – connections between one cell and another

• all cells (except blood and metastatic cancer cells) are anchored to each
other or their matrix by intercellular junctions
• resist stress and communicate with each other 5-37
 Tight Junctions
• tight junction – a region in which adjacent cells are bound together
by fusion of the outer phospholipid layer of their plasma membranes.
– in epithelia, forms a zone that complete encircles each cell near its apical pole
– seals off intercellular space
– makes it impossible for something to pass between cells

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Tight junction

Desmosome

Gap junction

Figure 5.28 5-38

 Desmosomes
• desmosomes - patch that holds cells together (like a clothing snap)
• serves to keep cells from pulling apart – resists mechanical stress
• hooklike J-shaped proteins arise from cytoskeleton
– approach cells surface
– penetrate into thick protein plaques linked to transmembrane proteins

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Tight junction

Desmosome

Gap junction

Figure 5.28 5-39

 Gap Junctions
• gap (communicating) junction – formed by a ringlike connexon
– consists of six transmembrane proteins arranged like segments of an orange
– surrounding a water-filled pores
– ions, glucose, amino acids and other solutes pass from one cell to the next

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Tight junction

Desmosome

Gap junction

Figure 5.28 5-40

Endocrine and Exocrine Glands
• gland – cell or organ that secrete substances for use elsewhere in the
body or releases them for elimination from the body
– composed of epithelial tissue in a connective tissue framework and capsule

• exocrine glands - maintain their contact with the body surface by way of
a duct (epithelial tube that conveys secretion to surface)
– sweat, mammary and tear glands

• endocrine glands - lose their contact with the surface and have no
ducts
– hormones – secretion of endocrine glands
– secrete (hormones) directly into blood
– thyroid, adrenal and pituitary glands

• some organs have both endocrine and exocrine function

– liver, gonads, pancreas

5-41
 Membranes
• membranes – line body cavities and cover their viscera
• cutaneous membrane - the skin – largest membrane in the
body
– stratified squamous epithelium (epidermis) over connective tissue
(dermis)
– relatively dry layer serves protective function

• mucous membrane (mucosa) – lines passageways open to

the external environment
• serous membrane (serosa) - internal membrane
– simple squamous epithelium over areolar tissue
– produces serous fluid that arises from blood
– covers organs and lines walls of body cavities

• synovial membrane - lines joint cavities

– connective tissue layer only, secretes synovial fluid
5-42
 Tissue Growth
• tissue growth – increasing the number of cells or
the existing cells grow larger
• hyperplasia - tissue growth through cell
multiplication

• hypertrophy - enlargement of preexisting cells

– muscle grow through exercise
– accumulation of body fat

• neoplasia – development of a tumor (neoplasm)

– benign or malignant
– composed of abnormal, nonfunctional tissue
5-43
 Changes in Tissue Types
• Tissues can change types

• Differentiation
– unspecialized tissues of embryo become specialized
mature types
• mesenchyme to muscle
• Monocytes to macrophages
• Osteoblasts to osteocytes

• Metaplasia
– changing from one type of mature tissue to another
• simple cuboidal tissue of vagina before puberty changes to
stratified squamous after puberty
• pseudostratified columnar epithelium of bronchi of smokers to
stratified squamous epithelium
5-44
 Stem Cells
• stem cells - undifferentiated cells that are not yet performing any
specialized function
– have potential to differentiate into one or more types of mature
functional cells

• developmental plasticity – diversity of mature cell types to which

stem cells can give rise
• embryonic stem cells
– totipotent - have potential to develop into any type of fully
differentiated human cell
• source - cells of very early embryo
– pluripotent – can develop into any type of cell in the embryo
• source - cells of inner cell mass of embryo

• adult stem cells - undifferentiated cells in tissues of adults

– multipotent - bone marrow producing several blood cell types
– unipotent – most limited plasticity - only epidermal cells produced5-45
 Tissue Repair
• regeneration - replacement of dead or damaged
cells by the same type of cell as before
– restores normal function
– skin injuries and liver regenerate

• fibrosis - replacement of damaged cells with scar

tissue
– holds organs together
– does not restore normal function
• severe cuts and burns, healing of muscle injuries, scarring of
lungs in tuberculosis

5-46
 Tissue Shrinkage and Death
• atrophy – shrinkage of a tissue through a loss in cell
size or number
– senile atrophy through normal aging
– disuse atrophy from lack of use (astronauts)
• necrosis – premature, pathological death of tissue due to
trauma, toxins, or infections
– infarction – sudden death of tissue when blood supply is cut off
– gangrene – tissue necrosis due to insufficient blood supply
– decubitus ulcer – bed sore or pressure sore
• pressure reduces blood flow to an area
• a form of dry gangrene
– gas gangrene - anaerobic bacterial infection
• apoptosis - programmed cell death
– normal death of cells that have completed their function and best
serve the body by dying and getting out of the way 5-47
 Tissue Engineering
• tissue engineering – artificial production of
tissues and organs in the lab for implantation in
the human body
– framework of collagen or biodegradable polyester fibers
– seeded with human cells
– grown in “bioreactor” (inside of mouse)
• supplies nutrients and oxygen to growing tissue

• skin grafts already available

– research in progress on heart valves, coronary arteries,
bone, liver, tendons
– human outer ear grown on back of mouse and recent
replacement of urinary bladder wall sections
5-48
Tissue Engineering
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Figure 5.34

5-49
 Stem Cell Controversy
• possible treatment for diseases caused by
loss of functional cell types by embryonic
stem cells
– cardiac muscle cells, injured spinal cord, insulin-
secreting cells

• skin and bone marrow stem cells have been

used in therapy for years
• adult stem cells have limited developmental
potential
– difficult to harvest and culture
5-50