Chapter 4

Defining
Performance
and
Choosing a
Measurement Approach
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 Defining Performance

Performance is defined as what

an employee does (his or her
behaviors). It does not include the
results or outcomes of an employee’s
behaviors.

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 Two Additional Characteristics of the
Behaviors Labelled Performance

1. Evaluative – such behaviors can be judged as

negative, neutral, or positive for individual and
organizational effectiveness. Thus, the value
of these behaviors can vary based on their
contribution toward the accomplishment of
individual, unit, and organizational goals.
2. Multidimensional – There are many different
kinds of behaviors that can advance (or
hinder) organizational goals.
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 Behaviors are Not Always
Observable or Measurable
Because not all behaviors are observable
or measurable, PM systems often include
measures of results or consequences
that we infer are the direct result of
employees’ behaviors.

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 Results or Consequences May
Be Used to Infer Behavior
A salesperson whose job consists of visiting
clients to offer them products or services is
often evaluated on his or her sales volume
– a proxy for a behavioral measure – since
the salesperson’s supervisor may be back
in the home office and cannot observe the
salesperson’s behaviors.

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Determinants of Performance

Performance =
Declarative Knowledge
X
Procedural Knowledge
X
Motivation
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 Declarative Knowledge

Declarative Knowledge is information

about:
• Facts and Things (including information
regarding a given task’s requirements)
• Labels
• Principles
• Goals
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 Procedural Knowledge

Procedural Knowledge is a combination of:

Knowing what to do and how to do it.



Includes cognitive, physical, perceptual,



motor, and interpersonal skills.

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 Motivation
Motivation involves three types of choice
behaviors:
• Expenditure of effort (e.g., “I will go to
work today.”)
• Level of effort (e.g., “I will put in my
best effort at work today.”)
• Persistence of effort (e.g., “I will persist
no matter what.”)
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 Deliberate Practice
Deliberate Practice involves the following steps:
Approach performance with the goal of getting

better and better.

As you are performing, focus on what is

happening and why you are doing things the way

you do.
When your task is finished, seek performance

feedback from many expert sources.

Build mental models of your job, your situation,

and your organization.

Repeat steps 1-4 on an ongoing basis.

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 Implications for Addressing
Performance Problems
In order to address performance problems
properly, managers must find information that
will allow them to understand whether the source
of the problem is declarative knowledge,
procedural knowledge, motivation, or some
combination of these factors.
Thus, PM systems need not only measure
performance but also provide information about
the source of any performance deficiencies.
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 4-11
 Factors Influencing
Determinants of Performance
 Three individual characteristics -
procedural knowledge, declarative
knowledge, and motivation – determine
performance.
 In addition, HR practices (e.g., the
amount of training available to
employees) and the work environment
(e.g., downsizing) can affect
performance.
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 Performance Dimensions:
Types of Multidimensional
Behaviors
Since performance is multidimensional, we need
to consider many different types of behaviors to
understand it. Two types of behaviors are
particularly important:
 Task performance.
Contextual performance (also called prosocial
behaviors or organizational citizenship
behaviors).
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 Task Performance
Task Performance is defined as activities that:
 transform raw materials into the goods and
services that are produced by the organization.
 help with the transformation process by
replenishing the supply of raw materials;
distributing its finished products; or providing
important planning, coordination, supervising,
or staff functions that enable the organization
to function effectively and efficiently.

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 Contextual Performance
Contextual Performance is defined as behaviors
that contribute to an organization’s
effectiveness by providing a good environment
in which task performance can occur.
Contextual Performance includes behaviors
such as:
 Persisting with enthusiasm and exerting extra

effort as necessary to complete one’s own task

activities successfully.
 Helping and cooperating with other coworkers.

 Following organizational rules and procedures.

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 Differences Between
Task and Contextual Performance
 Task Performance  Contextual
• Varies across Performance
jobs • Fairly similar across
jobs
• Likely to be role
prescribed • Not likely to be role
prescribed
• Influenced by
• Influenced by
Abilities and
Personality
Skills
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 Why Include Task and Contextual
Performance Dimensions in a PM System?
1. Global competition is raising the level of task
and contextual performance required of
employees for an organization to be
competitive.
2. Customer service – Global competition is also
raising the need for outstanding customer
service.
3. Teamwork – Many organizations have formed
employees into teams.
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 Why Include Task and Contextual
Performance Dimensions in a PM
System? (continued)
4. Employee perceptions of PM – Employees are
more satisfied with the PM system and believe it
is fairer if contextual performance is measured in
addition to task performance.
5. Supervisor views – Since contextual
performance has an impact on ratings of overall
performance even when only task performance is
measured, it makes sense to include contextual
performance more explicitly.
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 Voice Behavior
Behavior that emphasizes expression of
constructive challenges with the goal of
improving employee performance rather
than merely criticizing it.
Challenges the status quo in a positive way.
Makes innovative suggestions for change.
Recommends modifications to standard
procedures.

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 Job Performance in Context

That
A performer Engages in
In a given produce
(individual or certain
work various
team with behaviors
situation results
certain traits)

TRAIT BEHAVIOR RESULTS

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 Job Performance in Context
The previous power point shows that
employees do not perform in a vacuum.
Instead, they work in an organizational
context, engaging in certain behaviors that
produce certain results. The same
employees may behave differently (and
produce different results) if placed in a
different situation (e.g., working with a
different supervisor or using better
machinery).
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 Approaches to Measuring
Performance
Behavior Approach
 Emphasizes how employees do the job. Does not
consider employees’ traits or the outcomes resulting
from their behaviors.

Results Approach
 Emphasizes only the outcomes produced by employees.

Trait Approach
 Emphasizes only the individual traits (e.g., intelligence,
conscientiousness) of employees.
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 Behavior Approach
Appropriate if:
 Employees take a long time to achieve desired
outcomes.
 Link between behaviors and results is not
obvious.
 Outcomes occur in the distant future.
 Poor results are due to causes beyond the
performer’s control.
Not appropriate if:
 The above conditions are not present.
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 Results Approach
Advantages:
• Takes less time and is less expensive than
tracking employees’ behavior.
• Data appear objective.
Most appropriate when:
• Workers skilled in necessary behaviors.
• Behaviors and results obviously related.
• Consistent improvement in results over time.
• Many ways to do the job right.

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 Trait Approach
Most appropriate when:
 Emphasis on individual
• Evaluate stable traits (i.e., cognitive abilities,
personality)
 Positive relationship between abilities, personality
traits, and desirable work-related behaviors
 Appropriate if structural changes planned for
organization
Disadvantages
 Improvement of traits is not under individual’s control
 Trait may not lead to desired behaviors or results
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