SVIT

Dept of Computer Science and

Engineering

Machine Learning
B.Tech IIIyr
 Machine Learning
UNIT-1
Introduction - Well-posed learning problems, designing a learning
system, Perspectives and issues in machine learning

Concept learning and the general to specific ordering – introduction,

a concept learning task, concept learning as search, find-S: finding a
maximally specific hypothesis, version spaces and the candidate
elimination algorithm, remarks on version spaces and candidate
elimination, inductive bias.

Decision Tree Learning – Introduction, decision tree representation,

appropriate problems for decision tree learning, the basic decision tree
learning algorithm, hypothesis space search in decision tree learning,
inductive bias in decision tree learning, issues in decision tree learning.
 Books
Machine Learning by Tom M. Mitchell
 Lecture No. 1
Outline

• What can Machine Learning do for us

(“what has machine learning ever
done for us”?)
•What is machine learning?
•Applications of ML
•What is a well-defined learning problem?
•How do we design machine learning
systems?
•An example
 Machine Learning

•Machine Learning is an application of artificial intelligence(AI)

that provides system the ability to automatically learn and
improves from experience without being explicitly programmed.

•Machine learning focuses on the development of computer

programs that can access data and use it learn themselves.
What is Machine Learning ???

Machine Learning (ML) is concerned with

the question of how to construct computer
programs that automatically improves
with experience.
When Machine Learning ???

• Computers applied for solving a complex problem

• No known method for computing output is present
• When computation is expensive
When Machine Learning ???

• Classification of protein types based amino acid sequences

•Screening of credit applicants (who will default and who will

not)

•Modeling a complex chemical reaction, when the precise

interaction of the different reactants is unknown
 Application of Machine Learning
• Speech and Hand Writing Recognition
• Robotics (Robot locomotion)
• Search Engines (Information Retrieval)
• Learning to Classify new astronomical structures
• Medical Diagnosis
• Learning to drive an autonomous vehicle
• Computational Biology/Bioinformatics
• Computer Vision (Object Detection algorithms)
• Detecting credit card fraud
• Stock Market analysis
• Game playing
• ………………..
• ………………….
Search Engines
Sky Image Cataloging and Analysis Tool (SKI
CAT) to Classify new astronomical
structures
ALVINN (Autonomous Land Vehicle
In a Neural Network)
SPHINX - A speech recognizer
Disciplines that contribute to
development ML Field
Well-Posed Learning Problems
Definition (Learning)
A computer program is said to learn from
experience E with respect to some class of tasks
T and performance measure P, if its
performance at tasks in T, as measured by P,
improves with experience E. (Tom Mitchell,
1998)
 Checker Learning Problem
A computer program that learns to play checkers might
improve its performance as measured by its ability to win at the
class of tasks involving playing checkers games, through
experience obtained by playing games against itself

• Task T : playing checkers

• Performance measure P: % of game won against opponents
• Training experience E : playing practice game against itself
 A Handwritten Recognition
Problem

•Task T : recognizing and classifying handwritten words

within images

• Performance measure P: % of words correctly

classified

•Training experience E : a database of handwritten

words with given classifications
A Robot Driving Learning Problem

•Task T : driving on public four-lane highways using

vision sensors

Performance measure P: average distance traveled

before an error (as judged by human overseer)

•Training experience E : a sequence of images and

steering commands recorded while observing a human
driver
Designing a Learning System
Checker Learning Problem

• Task T : playing checkers

•Performance measure P: % of game won against

opponents

•Training experience E : playing practice game

against itself
Checker
DESIGNING A LEARNING SYSTEM

1. Choosing the Training Experience

2. Choosing the Target Function
3. Choosing a Representation for the Target Function
4. Choosing a Function Approximation Algorithm
5. Final Design
1.Choosing the Training Experience
The type of training experience E available to a
system can have significant impact on success or
failure of the learning system.
Choosing the Training Experience

One key attribute is whether the training experience

provides direct or indirect feedback regarding the
choices made by the performance system
Direct Learning
Indirect Learning

Next Move
Win / Loss
Second attribute is the degree to which the learner
controls the sequence of training examples.

Next

Move
Another attribute is the degree to which the learner
controls the sequence of training examples.

Teacher / Expert

Player Next Move

Player Next Move

How well the training experience represents the
distribution of examples over which the final system
performance P must be measured.
(Learning will be most reliable when the training
example follow a distribution similar to that of future
test examples)
Garry Kasparov playing chess with IBM's Deep Blue.
Photo courtesy of IBM.
 Assumptions

• Let us assume that our system will train by

playing games against itself.

• And it is allowed to generate as much training

data as time permits.
Issues Related to Experience

What type of knowledge/experience should one

learn??

How to represent the experience ? (some

mathematical representation for experience)

What should be the learning mechanism???

Main objective of the checker
playing

Best Next Move

2. Choosing the Target Function

Target Function

Choose Move: B → M

Choose Move is a function

where input B is the set of legal board states

and produces M which is the set of legal moves
 Input: Board State

Output: M (Moves)
Alternative Target Function

F:B→R

F is the target function,

Input B is the board state and
Output R denotes a set of real number
 Input: Board State

Output: M (Moves)

F = 10 F = 7.7 F = 14.3 F = 10

F = 10.8 F = 6.3 F = 9.4

3.Representation of Target
Function
• xl: the number of white pieces on the board
• x2: the number of red pieces on the board
• x3: the number of white kings on the board
• x4: the number of red kings on the board
• x5: the number of white pieces threatened by red (i.e.,
which can be captured on red's next turn)
• X6: the number of red pieces threatened by white

W0.. W6 are numerical coefficients(weights)

The problem of learning a checkers strategy reduces to the
problem of learning values for the coefficients w0 through w6 in
the target function representation
4. Choose Function Approximation
Algorithm

First need Set of training examples

<b,Vtrain(b)>

<(x1=3,x2=0,x3=1,x4=0,x5=0,x6=0),+100> because x2=0(black

won the game)

Estimating the Training Value

Vtrain(b) <- V´(successor(b))

Good if V´ tends to be more accurate for board positions closer to game’s end
Adjusting the weights
Choose Learning Algorithm I
Learning Algorithm for choosing weights wi to best fit
the set of training examples
{<b,Vtrain(b)>}  {<b,V´(Successor(b))>}

Best fit could be defined as minimizes the squared

error E
Choose learning Algorithm II
We seek the weights that minimise E for the
observed training examples

We need an algorithm that incrementally

refines the weights as new training examples
become available & is robust to errors in
estimated training values

One such algorithm is LMS (basis of Neural

Network algorithms)
Where  is a small constant 0.1 that moderates the size of the weight update
5.The Final Design
Generic issues of Machine Learning
What algorithms perform best for which type of problems and
representations?

How much training data is sufficient?

How can prior knowledge be used?

How can you choose a useful next training experience?

How does noisy data influence accuracy?

How do you reduce a learning problem to a set of function approximations?

How can the learner automatically alter its representation to improve its
ability to represent and learn the target function?
Summary
Machine Learning is useful for
Datamining (credit worthiness)
Poorly understood domains (face recognition)
Programs that must dynamically adapt to changing conditions
(Internet)

Machine Learning draws on many diverse disciplines:

Artificial Intelligence
Probability and Statistics
Computational Complexity
Information Theory
Psychology and Neurobiology
Control Theory
Philosophy
 Summary
Learning problem needs well-specified task,
performing metric, and source of training
experience.

Machine Learning approach involves a number

of design choices:
type of training experience,
target function,
representation of target function,
an algorithm for learning the target function from the
training data.
 Summary
Learning involves searching the space of
possible hypothesis.

Different learning methods search different

hypothesis spaces (numerical functions,
neural networks, decision trees, symbolic
rules).

There are some theoretical results which

characterize conditions under which these
search methods converge toward an optimal
hypothesis.
 Exercises
1. Pick some learning task not mentioned in this chapter. Describe it
informally in a paragraph in English. Now describe it by stating as
precisely as possible the task, performance measure, and training
experience. Finally, propose a target function to be learned and a
target representation. Discuss the main tradeoffs you considered in
formulating this learning task.

Lab:
1. Python data types
2. Loops statements.
3. Write python programs using above concept.