EEE3003

POWER SYSTEM ENGINEERING

 Module - III
Insulators and Cables
 Insulators
The insulators provide necessary insulation between line
conductors and supports and thus prevent any leakage current from
conductors to earth.

In general, the insulators should have the following desirable

properties :

(i) High mechanical strength in order to withstand conductor load, wind

load etc.

(ii) High electrical resistance of insulator material in order to avoid

leakage currents to earth.

(iii) High relative permittivity of insulator material in order that

dielectric strength is high.

(iv) The insulator material should be non-porous, free from impurities

and cracks otherwise the permittivity will be lowered.

(v) High ratio of puncture strength to flashover.

 The most commonly used material for insulators of overhead line
is porcelain but glass, steatite and special composition materials are also
used to a limited extent. Porcelain is produced by firing at a high
temperature a mixture of kaolin, feldspar and quartz. It is stronger
mechanically than glass, gives less trouble from leakage and is less
effected by changes of temperature.

Types of Insulators

1. Pin type insulators (LT)

2. Suspension type insulators (HT)
3. Strain insulators (HT end)
4. Shackle insulators (LT end)
1. Pin type insulators (LT)
Suspension type insulators (HT)
Strain insulators (HT end)
1. Pin type insulators
This type of insulator is placed over the cross arm, and there is
a groove on the upper end of the insulator for housing the conductor.
The conductor passes through this groove and is bound by the
annealed wire of the same material as the conductor.
Pin type insulators are used for transmission and distribution of
electric power at voltages upto 33 kV. Beyond operating voltage of 33
kV, the pin type insulators become too bulky and hence uneconomical.
2. Suspension type insulators
For high voltages (>33 kV), it is a usual practice to use
suspension type insulators shown in Fig. consist of a number of
porcelain discs connected in series by metal links in the form of a string.
The conductor is suspended at the bottom end of this string while the
other end of the string is secured to the cross-arm of the tower. Each
unit or disc is designed for low voltage, say 11 kV.

The number of discs in series would

obviously depend upon the working
voltage.

For instance, if the working voltage

is 66 kV, then six discs in series will
be provided on the string.

Metal link
3. Strain insulators.
When there is a dead end
of the line or there is corner or
sharp curve, the line is subjected
to greater tension. In order to
relieve the line of excessive
tension, strain insulators are
used. For low voltage lines (< 11
kV), shackle insulators are used
as strain insulators. However, for
high voltage transmission lines,
strain insulator consists of an
assembly of suspension insulators
as shown in Fig.
4. Shackle insulators.
They are frequently used for low voltage distribution lines.
 Insulator failure
The electrical breakdown of the insulator can occur either by
flash-over or puncture.
In flashover, an arc occurs between the line conductor and
insulator pin (i.e., earth) and the discharge jumps across the air gaps,
following shortest distance. Fig. shows the arcing distance (i.e. a + b +
c) for the insulator. In case of flash-over, the insulator will continue to
act in its proper capacity unless extreme heat produced by the arc
destroys the insulator.
In case of puncture, the discharge
occurs from conductor to pin through the body
of the insulator. When such breakdown is
involved, the insulator is permanently
destroyed due to excessive heat. In practice,
sufficient thickness of porcelain is provided in
the insulator to avoid puncture by the line
voltage. The ratio of puncture strength to
flashover voltage is known as safety factor i.e.,
 Potential Distribution over Suspension Insulator String

The porcelain portion of each disc is in between two metal links.

Therefore, each disc forms a capacitor (C) as shown in Fig. This is known
as mutual capacitance or self-capacitance. However, in actual
practice, capacitance also exists between metal fitting of each disc and
tower or earth. This is known as shunt capacitance (C1). Due to shunt
capacitance, charging current is not the same through all the discs of the
string. Therefore, voltage across each disc will be different. Obviously, the
disc nearest to the line conductor will have the maximum voltage.
 This unequal potential distribution is undesirable and is
usually expressed in terms of string efficiency.

The greater the string efficiency, the more uniform is the

voltage distribution.
String Efficiency

assuming

Apply KCL at node A,

Apply KCL at node B,

 Methods of Improving String Efficiency

(i) By using longer cross-arms.

The value of string efficiency depends upon
the value of K i.e., ratio of shunt capacitance
to mutual capacitance. The lesser the value
of K, the greater is the string efficiency and
more uniform is the voltage distribution.

The value of K can be decreased by

reducing the shunt capacitance. In order to
reduce shunt capacitance, the distance of
conductor from tower must be increased i.e.,
longer cross-arms should be used.

However, limitations of cost and

strength of tower do not allow the use of
very long cross-arms. In practice, K = 0·1 is
the limit that can be achieved by this
method.
(ii) By grading the insulators.

In this method, insulators of different

dimensions are so chosen that each has a
different capacitance. The insulators are
capacitance graded i.e. they are assembled in
the string in such a way that the top unit has
the minimum capacitance, increasing
progressively as the bottom unit (i.e.,
nearest to conductor) is reached.
Since voltage is inversely proportional
to capacitance, this method tends to equalise
the potential distribution across the units in
the string.
This method has the disadvantage
that a large number of different-sized
insulators are required. However, good
results can be obtained by using standard
insulators for most of the string and larger
units for that near to the line conductor.
(iii) By using a guard ring. The potential across each unit in a string can
be equalised by using a guard ring which is a metal ring electrically
connected to the conductor and surrounding the bottom insulator as
shown in the Fig. The guard ring introduces capacitance between metal
fittings and the line conductor. The guard ring is contoured in such a way
that shunt capacitance currents i1, i2 etc. are equal to metal fitting line
capacitance currents i′1, i′2 etc. The result is that same charging current I
flows through each unit of string. Consequently, there will be uniform
potential distribution across the units.
1. In a 33 kV overhead line, there are three units in the string of
insulators. If the capacitance between each insulator pin and earth is
11% of self-capacitance of each insulator, find (i) the distribution of
voltage over 3 insulators and (ii) string efficiency.

If C is the self-capacitance of each unit, then

KC will be the shunt capacitance.
Voltage across top unit,V1 = 19·05/3·452 = 5·52 kV

Voltage across middle unit, V2 = 1·11 V1 = 1·11 × 5·52 = 6.13 kV

Voltage across bottom unit, V3 = 1·342 V1 = 1·342 × 5·52 = 7.4 kV

2. Each line of a 3-phase system is suspended by a string of 3 identical insulators of self-
capacitance C farad. The shunt capacitance of connecting metal work of each insulator is 0·2C to
earth and 0·1C to line. Calculate the string efficiency of the system if a guard ring increases the
capacitance to the line of metal work of the lowest insulator to 0·3 C.
A 3-phase overhead transmission line is supported on 4-disc suspension
insulators. The voltage across the second and third discs are 13·2 kV and
18 kV respectively. Calculate the line voltage and mention the nearest
standard voltage. [118·75 kV; 120 kV]

Each conductor of a 3-phase high-voltage transmission line is suspended

by a string of 4 suspension type disc insulators. If the potential difference
across the second unit from top is 13·2 kV and across the third from top
is 18 kV, determine the voltage between conductors.
V1 = 10 kv V2 = 12 kv
VL =? η =?
V2 = V1 (1 + m)
1 + m = V2 / V1 = 12/10 = 1.2
m = 1.2 - 1 = 0.2
V3 = V1 (m³ + 3m +1)
= 1.0 [(0.2) ² + 3 × 0.2 + 1]
= 10 × 1.64
= 16.4 kv
V4 = V1 (m³ + 5m ² + 6m + 1)
= 10 [(0.2) ³ + 5 × (0.2) ² + 6 × 0.2 + 1]
= 10 × 2.408
= 24.08 kv
V = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4
10 + 12 + 16.4 + 24.08
= 62.48 kv
Line Voltage VL = √ 3  × V
= √ 3 × 62.48
108.22 kv
Efficient string η = N - number of units s.o.v.
                                    N × one units s.o.v.

                    % η = 62.48 / 24.08 × 100

                   = 64.86% (Ans).
Electric power can be transmitted in two ways

1. Overhead lines
2. Underground cables

Underground cables are not preferred for long distance transmission

due to insulation problem and installation cost.
 UNDERGROUND CABLES

Underground cable system Overhead transmission system

1. Better appearance, less 1. No better appearance, more

interference interference.

2. Cable lines are designed to be 2. It does not require insulation

placed underground or under between conductors, apart
water. The conductors are from line insulators.
insulated from one another
and surrounded by
protective sheath.
3. Cable lines are usually more
expensive and harder to 3. Comparatively less
maintain. expensive.
4. They have capacitance
problem hence the charging 4. Less capacitance problem,
current is more, not suitable more suitable for long
for long distance. transmission
 Construction of Cables
(i) Cores or Conductors.
(ii) Insulation
(iii)Metallic sheath: to protect the cable from moisture, gases or other
damaging liquids.
(iv)Bedding: fibrous material layer to protect metallic sheath from
corrosion.
(v) Armouring: galvanised steel wire or steel tape layer, for mechanical
protection.
(vi)Serving: fibrous material layer, to protect armouring from
atmospheric conditions,
Capacitance of a Single-Core Cable
A single-core cable can be considered to be equivalent to two
long co-axial cylinders. The conductor (or core) of the cable is the inner
cylinder while the outer cylinder is represented by lead sheath which is
at earth potential. Consider a single core cable with conductor diameter
d and inner sheath diameter D.
Let the charge per metre axial length of the cable be Q
coulombs and ε be the permittivity of the insulation material between
core and lead sheath. Obviously ε = ε0 εr where εr is the relative
permittivity of the insulation.

Capacitance of the cable is

If the cable has a length of l metres, then capacitance of the cable is

Dielectric Stress in a Single-Core Cable
Under operating conditions, the insulation of a cable is subjected
to electrostatic forces. This is known as dielectric stress. The dielectric
stress at any point in a cable is in fact the potential gradient (or electric
intensity) at that point.

The electric intensity at a point x metres from the

centre of the cable is

By definition, electric intensity is equal to potential

gradient. Therefore, potential gradient g at a point x
metres from the centre of cable is
potential difference V between conductor and sheath is

Substituting the value of Q in g expression

 The potential gradient varies inversely as
the distance x. Therefore, potential gradient is
maximum when x is minimum i.e., when x = d/2
or at the surface of the conductor.

On the other hand, potential gradient is

minimum at x = D/2 or at sheath surface.
 Grading of Cables
The unequal stress distribution in a cable is undesirable for two
reasons.
Firstly, insulation of greater thickness is required which increases
the cable size.
Secondly, it may lead to the breakdown of insulation.

In order to overcome above disadvantages, it is necessary to

have a uniform stress distribution in cables. This can be achieved by
distributing the stress in such a way that its value is increased in the outer
layers of dielectric. This is known as grading of cables. The following are
the two main methods of grading of cables :

(i) Capacitance grading (ii) Intersheath grading

(i) Capacitance Grading
The process of achieving uniform
dielectric stress by using layers of
different dielectrics is known as
capacitance grading.
In capacitance grading, the
homogeneous dielectric is replaced by a
composite dielectric.
The composite dielectric consists
of various layers of different dielectrics in
such a manner that relative permittivity
εr of any layer is inversely proportional
to its distance from the centre. Under
such conditions, the value of potential
gradient at any point in the dieletric is
constant and is independent of its
distance from the centre.
If the permittivities are such that
ε1 > ε2 > ε3
and the three dielectrics are worked at
the same maximum stress, then,
(ii) Intersheath Grading
In this method of cable grading,
a homogeneous dielectric is used, but it
is divided into various layers by placing
metallic intersheaths between the core
and lead sheath.
As the cable behaves like three capacitors in series, therefore, all the
potentials are in phase i.e. Voltage between conductor and earthed lead
sheath is
A 33 kV, 50 Hz, 3-phase underground cable, 4 km long uses three single
core cables. Each of the conductor has a diameter of 2·5 cm and the
radial thickness of insulation is 0·5 cm. Determine (i) capacitance of the
cable/phase (ii) charging current/phase (iii) total charging kVAR. The
relative permittivity of insulation is 3.
1. A single-core lead sheathed cable is graded by using three
dielectrics of relative permittivity 5, 4 and 3 respectively. The
conductor diameter is 2 cm and overall diameter is 8 cm. If the
three dielectrics are worked at the same maximum stress of 40
kV/cm, find the safe working voltage of the cable.
What will be the value of safe working voltage for an
ungraded cable, assuming the same conductor and overall diameter
and the maximum dielectric stress ?
As the maximum stress in the three dielectrics is the same,

= 81·808 kV
 Thus for the same conductor
diameter (d) and the same overall
dimension (D), the graded cable can be
operated at a voltage (57·84 − 39·20) =
18·64 kV (r.m.s.) higher than the
homogeneous cable
2. A single-core 66 kV cable working on 3-phase system has a conductor
diameter of 2 cm and a sheath of inside diameter 5.3 cm. If two
intersheaths are introduced in such a way that the stress varies between
the same maximum and minimum in the three layers, find :
(i) positions of intersheaths
(ii) voltage on the intersheaths
(iii) maximum and minimum stress
 (i) Positions of intersheaths.

As the maximum stress in the three layers is the same,

 In order that stress may vary between the same maximum and
minimum in the three layers, we have,
(ii) Voltage on intersheaths

(iii) Stresses in dielectrics

Distribution systems
 Structure of Power System

Large Industrial loads

Small Industrial loads

 In general, the distribution system is the electrical system
between the sub-station fed by the transmission system and the
consumers meters. It generally consists of feeders, distributors and
the service mains.
(i) Feeders: A feeder is a conductor which connects the sub-station
(or localised generating station) to the area where power is to be
distributed. Generally, no tappings are taken from the feeder so
that current in it remains the same throughout. The main
consideration in the design of a feeder is the current carrying
capacity.

(ii) Distributor: A distributor is a conductor from which tappings are

taken for supply to the consumers. The current through a
distributor is not constant because tappings are taken at various
places along its length. While designing a distributor, voltage drop
along its length is the main consideration since the statutory limit
of voltage variations is ± 6% of rated value at the consumers’
terminals.
(iii) Service mains: A service mains is generally a small cable which
connects the distributor to the consumers’ terminals.
Classification of Distribution Systems

A distribution system may be classified according to ;

(i) Nature of current.

(a) d.c. distribution system (b) a.c. distribution system.

(ii) Type of construction.

(a) overhead system (b) underground system.

(iii) Scheme of connection.

(a) radial system (b) ring main system (c) inter-connected system.
A.C Distribution
1. Primary Distribution 2. Secondary Distribution
2. Secondary Distribution
 D.C. Distribution
The d.c. supply from the substation may be obtained in the
form of (i) 2-wire or (ii) 3-wire for distribution.
(i) 2-wire d.c. system. Less efficient

(ii) 3-wire d.c. system.

Connection Schemes of Distribution System
(i) Radial System: In this system, separate feeders radiate from a
single substation and feed the distributors at one end only.

This is the simplest distribution and has the lowest initial cost.
However, it suffers from the following drawbacks :
(a) The end of the distributor nearest to the feeding point will be
heavily loaded.
(b) The consumers are dependent on single feeder. Therefore,
any fault on the feeder or distributor cuts off supply to the consumers
(c) The consumers at the distant end of the distributor would be
subjected to serious voltage fluctuations when the load on the distributor
changes. Due to these limitations, this system is used for short distances
only.
(ii) Ring main system. In this system, the primaries of distribution
transformers form a loop. The loop circuit starts from the substation
bus-bars, makes a loop through the area to be served, and returns to
the substation.

The ring main system has the following advantages :

(a) There are less voltage fluctuations at consumer’s terminals.
(b) The system is very reliable as each distributor is fed via two
feeders. In the event of fault on any section of the feeder, the continuity
of supply is maintained.
(iii) Interconnected system. When the feeder ring is energised by two
or more than two generating stations or substations, it is called inter-
connected system.

The interconnected system has the following advantages :

(a) It increases the service reliability.
(b) Any area fed from one generating station during peak load
hours can be fed from the other generating station. This reduces reserve
power capacity and increases efficiency of the system.
Types of D.C. Distributors

The most general method of classifying d.c. distributors is the

way they are fed by the feeders. On this basis, d.c. distributors are
classified as:
(i) Distributor fed at one end
(ii) Distributor fed at both ends
(iii) Distributor fed at the centre
(iv) Ring distributor.
(i) Distributor fed at one end. In this type of feeding, the distributor
is connected to the supply at one end and loads are taken at different
points along the length of the distributor.
(a) The current in the various sections of the distributor away from
feeding point goes on decreasing.
(b) The voltage across the loads away from the feeding point goes
on decreasing.
(c) In case a fault occurs on any section of the distributor, the whole
distributor will have to be disconnected from the supply mains.
Therefore, continuity of supply is interrupted.
(ii) Distributor fed at both ends. In this type of feeding, the
distributor is connected to the supply mains at both ends and loads are
tapped off at different points along the length of the distributor. Here,
the load voltage goes on decreasing as we move away from one
feeding point say A, reaches minimum value and then again starts
rising and reaches maximum value when we reach the other feeding
point B. The minimum voltage occurs at some load point and is never
fixed. It is shifted with the variation of load on different sections of the
distributor.

Advantages
(a) If a fault occurs on any feeding point of the distributor, the
continuity of supply is maintained from the other feeding point.
(b) In case of fault on any section of the distributor, the
continuity of supply is maintained from the other feeding point.
(iii) Distributor fed at the centre. In this type of feeding, the centre
of the distributor is connected to the supply mains.

(iv) Ring mains. In this type, the distributor is in the form of a closed
ring. It is equivalent to a straight distributor fed at both ends with equal
voltages, the two ends being brought together to form a closed ring.
Ring Main Distributor with Interconnector

Sometimes a ring distributor has to serve a large area. In such

a case, voltage drops in the various sections of the distributor may
become excessive. In order to reduce voltage drops in various sections,
distant points of the distributor are joined through a conductor called
interconnector.