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Discrete Mathematics Unit 1: by Shivangi

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23 views14 pages

Discrete Mathematics Unit 1: by Shivangi

Uploaded by

Shaswat kumar
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Discrete

Mathematics
Unit 1
By Shivangi
Table of content
Set Theory and Boolean Algebra
● Relations and Functions
● Partial Order Relations
● Lattices
● Boolean Algebra
● Laws of Boolean Algebra
● Boolean Functions- Normal Forms,
● Application of Boolean Algebra to Switching Circuits
Introduction of Sets
A set is defined as a collection of distinct objects of the same type or class of
objects. The purposes of a set are called elements or members of the set. An
object can be numbers, alphabets, names, etc.

Examples of sets are:

a. A set of rivers of India.


b. A set of vowels.

We broadly denote a set by the capital letter A, B, C, etc. while the


fundamentals of the set by small letter a, b, x, y, etc.

If A is a set, and a is one of the elements of A, then we denote it as a ∈ A. Here


the symbol ∈ means -"Element of."
Sets Representation:
Sets are represented in two forms:-

a) Roster or tabular form: In this form of representation we list all the


elements of the set within braces { } and separate them by commas.

Example: If A= set of all odd numbers less then 10 then in the roster form it
can be expressed as A={ 1,3,5,7,9}.

b) Set Builder form: In this form of representation we list the properties


fulfilled by all the elements of the set. We note as {x: x satisfies properties P}.
and read as 'the set of those entire x such that each x has properties P.'

Example: If B= {2, 4, 8, 16, 32}, then the set builder representation will be: B={x:
x=2n, where n ∈ N and 1≤ n ≥5}
Standard Notations:

x∈A x belongs to A or x is an element of set A.

x∉A x does not belong to set A.

∅ Empty Set.

U Universal Set.

N The set of all natural numbers.

I The set of all integers.

I0 The set of all non- zero integers.

I+ The set of all + ve integers.

C, C0 The set of all complex, non-zero complex numbers respectively.

Q, Q0, Q+ The sets of rational, non- zero rational, +ve rational numbers
respectively.
Cardinality of a Sets:
The total number of unique elements in the set is called the cardinality of
the set.
The cardinality of the countably infinite set is countably infinite.

Examples:
1. Let P = {k, l, m, n}

The cardinality of the set P is 4.

2. Let A is the set of all non-negative even integers, i.e.

A = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10......}.
Types of Sets
Sets can be classified into many categories. Some of which are finite, infinite, subset, universal, proper, power,
singleton set, etc.

1. Finite Sets: A set is said to be finite if it contains exactly n distinct element where n is a non-negative integer.
Here, n is said to be "cardinality of sets." The cardinality of sets is denoted by|A|, # A, card (A) or n (A).

Example:

1. Cardinality of empty set θ is 0 and is denoted by |θ| = 0


2. Sets of even positive integer is not a finite set.
A set is called a finite set if there is one to one correspondence between the elements in the set and the element
in some set n, where N is a natural number and n is the cardinality of the set. Finite Sets are also called numerable
sets. n is termed as the cardinality of sets or a cardinal number of sets

.2. Infinite Sets: A set which is not finite is called as Infinite Sets.

Countable Infinite: If there is one to one correspondence between the elements in set and element in N. A
countably infinite set is also known as Denumerable. A set that is either finite or denumerable is known as
countable. A set which is not countable is known as Uncountable. The set of a non-negative even integer is
countable Infinite.
Uncountable Infinite:

A set which is not countable is called Uncountable Infinite Set or non-denumerable set or simply
Uncountable.

Example:

Set R of all +ve real numbers less than 1 that can be represented by the decimal form 0. a 1,a2,a3.....
Where a1 is an integer such that 0 ≤ ai ≤ 9.

3. Subsets:

If every element in a set A is also an element of a set B, then A is called a subset of B. It can be
denoted as A ⊆ B. Here B is called Superset of A.

Example:

If A= {1, 2} and B= {4, 2, 1} the A is the subset of B or A ⊆ B.


Properties of Subsets:

1. Every set is a subset of itself.


2. The Null Set i.e. ∅ is a subset of every set.
3. If A is a subset of B and B is a subset of C, then A will be the subset of C. If A⊂B and B⊂ C ⟹ A
⊂C
4. A finite set having n elements has 2n subsets.
4. Proper Subset:

If A is a subset of B and A ≠ B then A is said to be a proper subset of B. If A is a proper subset of B then


B is not a subset of A, i.e., there is at least one element in B which is not in A.

Example:

(i) Let A = {2, 3, 4}

B = {2, 3, 4, 5}

A is a proper subset of B.

(ii) The null ∅ is a proper subset of every set.


5. Improper Subset:
If A is a subset of B and A = B, then A is said to be an improper subset of B.

Example

(i) A = {2, 3, 4}, B = {2, 3, 4}

A is an improper subset of B.

NOTE- Every set is an improper subset of itself.

6. Universal Set:

If all the sets under investigations are subsets of a fixed set U, then the set U is called Universal Set.

Example:

In the human population studies the universal set consists of all the people in the world.

7. Null Set or Empty Set: A set having no elements is called a Null set or void set. It is denoted by∅.

8. Singleton Set: It contains only one element. It is denoted by {s}.


8. Singleton Set:

It contains only one element. It is denoted by {s}.

Example: S= {x|x∈N, 7<x<9} = {8}


9. Equal Sets:

Two sets A and B are said to be equal and written as A = B if both have the same
elements. Therefore, every element which belongs to A is also an element of the set B
and every element which belongs to the set B is also an element of the set A.

1. A = B ⟺ {x ϵ A ⟺ x ϵ B}.

If there is some element in set A that does not belong to set B or vice versa then A ≠ B,
i.e., A is not equal to B.
10. Equivalent Sets:

If the cardinalities of two sets are equal, they are called equivalent sets.
Example

IfA= {1, 2, 6} and B= {16, 17, 22}, they are equivalent as cardinality of A is equal
to the cardinality of B. i.e. |A|=|B|=3

11. Disjoint Sets:

Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint if no element of A is in B and no


element of B is in A.

Example:

R = {a, b, c}

S = {k, p, m}

R and S are disjoint sets.


2. Power Sets:

The power of any given set A is the set of all subsets of A and is
denoted by P (A). If A has n elements, then P (A) has 2n elements.
Example: A = {1, 2, 3}
P (A) = {∅, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1, 2, 3}}.
Partitions of a Set:

Let S be a nonempty set. A partition of S is a subdivision of S into


nonoverlapping, nonempty subsets. Speceficially, a partition of S is a
collection {Ai} of nonempty subsets of S such that:

● Each a in S belongs to one of the Ai.


● The sets of {Ai} are mutually disjoint; that is,
Aj≠ Ak Then Aj ∩ Ak= ∅

The subsets in a partition are called cells.

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