LINUX BASED NETWORKS
Instructor: Muhammad Jahanger
Linux Based Networks University of Education (4)
Instructor: Muhammad Jahanger
[email protected]Linux Basic Commands
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LINUX BASED NETWORKS
Instructor: Muhammad Jahanger
WARNING!
All of Unix is case sensitive.
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Logging In As Root
Regardless of whether you ve chosen a graphical or console login screen, you ll have to supply a login account name and the password associated with that account. From a console screen, for example, you ll see something like:
Red Hat Linux release 9.0 Kernel 2. xx on an i686 localhost login:root Password: yourrootpassword
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Shell Prompt
Now that you have logged in, you will see a shell prompt.
[root@localhost /root]#
This is where you will spend most of your time as system administrator.
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Logging Out of Root
Just type exit at the prompt, as in:
[root@localhost /root]# logout
or by using the key combination of
[Ctrl]-[D]
Or just type logout at the prompt:
[root@localhost /root]# exit
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System Shutdown
The Need To Shutdown
The Linux operating system keeps the more current versions of the "table of contents", or inode table, in memory to speed disk access. If the system is not shutdown properly the inode table stored in memory is not written to the disk so the table of contents will not be correct and files will be lost. Never, under any circumstances, shutdown your Linux system simply by pressing the power button
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The Three Finger Salute
Shutting down in this matter will forcibly log off any other users who will lose whatever their working on
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The shutdown Command
#shutdown -h now
The shutdown command is the best option for shutting down a system with users currently logged on.
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halt Command
#halt
Since they are based on the UNIX operating system, some versions of Linux allow you to use the commands "fasthalt" or "haltsys" to immediately bring the system down in a safe and orderly fashion.
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Rebooting The System
The reboot Command
The "shutdown -r" Command for rebooting the system
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WARNING!
Make certain that you ve saved your work before halting or restarting your system from the shell prompt. Running applications will be closed and you won t have the option of saving your work or your session.
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Changing your Password
Exercise to change your password? 1. Type the command passwd. 2. You will then be asked for a new password. 3. And then asked to confirm that password. 4. Then you will arrive back in the shell. 5. The password you have chosen will take effect immediately, 6. Replacing the previous password that you used to log in.
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Listing Files (ls)
Type in the command.
[root@localhost /root]#ls If there were files, you would see their names listed in columns with no indication of what they are for.
To see a hidden file you have to use the command
[root@localhost /root]#ls -a
Another variant ls -l which lists the contents in long format.
[root@localhost /root]#ls -l
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Output of example [ls l]
Information Type File access permissions Number of links User(file owner) Group File Size (in bytes) Last modification date Last modification time Filename
Linux Basic Commands Class Meeting #
ls Output -rw-rw-rw1 root root 512 Feb 6 21:11 myfile
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ls (cont.)
They can be strung together in any way that is convenient for example ls -a -l, ls -l -a or ls -al | either of these will list all files in long format. [root@localhost /root]#ls a -l [root@localhost /root]#ls l -a [root@localhost /root]#ls -al
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pico -- joe
Simple Text Editor
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joe Text Editor The ^ represents the control Key Use ^KH to get help then esc and , and . to back and forward respectively.
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EXIT ^KX Save and Exit ^C Abort ^KZ Shell FILE ^KE Edit ^KR Insert ^KD Save
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SEARCH
^KF find Text ^L Find Next
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GO TO
^U Prev. Screen ^V Next Screen ^A Beginning of line ^E End of Line ^KU Top of file ^KV End of File ^KL To Line Number
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BLOCK
^KB Begin ^KK End ^KM Move ^KC Copy ^KW File ^KY Delete ^K/ Filter
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SPELL
^[N Word ^[L File
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System manual pages
You should now use the man command to look up the manual pages for all the commands that you will learn. Type # man cp # man mv # man rm # man mkdir # man rmdir # man passwd # man man
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System info pages
You can also type info <command> for help on many basic commands. Some packages will however not have info pages.
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Manipulating directories
cd
change directories
The cd command is used to take you to different directories.
#cd directory1/directory2
And similarly you can get back to where you were with
#cd ..
By simply typing cd you get back to your home directory no matter where ever you are
#cd
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The "more" Command
# ls | more
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The "less" Command
#ls | less
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Make directories [mkdir]
#mkdir java #mkdir p java/javaservers/apachi
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Directories [pwd]
The command pwd stands for present working directory (also called the current directory) and is used to tell you what directory you are currently in.
#pwd
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Directories [rmdir]
rmdir Remove empty directories
#rmdir p dir1/dir2/dir3
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Directories [rm]
rm Remove files
#rm rf filename #rm rf directoryname
Both commands are dangerous to use as a root user
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Relative vs. absolute pathnames
A command that requires a file name can be given the file in two ways. If you are in the same directory as the file
# cp myfile newfile
Otherwise, you can enter the full path name, like
# cp /home/jack/myfile /home/jack/newfile
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Relative and Absolute paths
For example I as root user want to copy a file from /etc directory to our home directory
#cp /etc/passwd ./profile (Absolute path) #cp ../etc/passwd .
(Relative path)
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Directories [cp]
SYNOPSIS cp [options] source dest OPTIONS P, parents the command cp parents a/b/c existing_dir copies the file a/b/c to existing_dir/a/b/c, creating any missing intermediate directories. p, preserve Preserve the original files owner, group, permissions, and timestamps. Copy directories recursively, copying all non directories as if they were regular files.
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-r
Linux Basic Commands
LINUX BASED NETWORKS
Instructor: Muhammad Jahanger
Basics of Wildcards
Wildcards * ? [] Example Jo* Jo*y UL*l*s.c ?.h Meaning Match any sequence of one or more characters. Match any single character. Match one of the enclosed characters or range. Meaning Files that begin with Jo Files that begin Jo and end in y Files that begin with UL, contain an l and end in s.c All files that begin with a single character followed by .h
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Basics of Wildcards (cont)
Example Doc[0-9].txt Doc0[A-Z].txt Meaning Files with the names Doc0.txt,Doc1.txt .., Doc9.txt. Files with the names Doc0A.txt,Doc0B.txt, Doc0Z.txt.
ls [A-M]* list the files that begin with A through M [a-dJW-Y]* matches all files beginning with a, b, c, d, J, W, X or Y. *[a-d]id matches all files ending with aid, bid, cid or did.
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Some useful commands [clear]
The clear command clears your terminal and returns the command line prompt to the top of the screen.
[root@localhost /root]# clear
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bc
A calculator program that handles arbitrary precision (very large) numbers. It is useful for doing any kind of calculation on the command line. It use is left as an exercise.
[root@localhost /root]# bc
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cal [[0-12] 1--9999]
Prints out a nicely formatted calendar of the current month, or a specified month, or a specified whole year.
[root@localhost /root]# cal 1947
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whoami
Prints out your login name. [root@localhost /root]#whoami
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date
Prints out the current date and time.
[root@localhost /root]#date
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df Stands for disk free
This tells you how much free space is left on your system.
[root@localhost /root]# df -h
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free Prints out available free memory.
You will notice two listings: swap space and physical memory. [root@localhost /root]# free
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uname
Prints out the name of the Unix operating system you are currently using.
[root@localhost /root]# uname -a
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wc
wc [-c] [-w] [-l] <filename>
Counts the number characters/bytes (with -c), words (with -w) or lines (with-l) in a file. [root@localhost /root]# wc c /etc/passwd
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Using cat command to create files
Start cat to see what this means. At the shell prompt, type: [newuser@localhost /newuser]# cat The cursor moves to a blank line. Now, in that blank line, let s type: stop by sneaker store and press the [Enter] key. Your screen will look like: [newuser@localhost /newuser]# cat stop by sneaker store stop by sneaker store To quit cat now, press the [Ctrl] and [D] keys at the same time.
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Cat Standard Input & Standard Output
But cat has just demonstrated the definition of standard input and standard output. Your input was read from the keyboard (standard input), and that input was then directed to your terminal (standard output).
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Using Redirection
Redirection means causing the shell to change what it considers standard input or where the standard output is going. To redirect standard output, we ll use the > symbol. Placing > after the cat command
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Lets try Redirection.
[newuser@localhost /newuser]# cat >sneakers.txt buy some sneakers then go to the coffee shop Then buy some coffee Now press [Enter] to go to an empty line, and use the [Ctrl]-[D] keys to quit cat. You can even use cat to read the file, by typing at the prompt. [newuser@localhost /newuser]#cat sneakers.txt
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Caution
You can easily overwrite an existing file! Make sure the name of the file you re creating doesn t match the name of a preexisting file, unless you want to replace it.
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Exercise
Create another file named home.txt having the following contents bring the coffee home take off shoes put on sneakers make some coffee relax! Check the file using cat command ?
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Joining Files and Redirecting Output
[user@localhost /user]# cat sneakers.txt home.txt > myfile
Now it s time to check our handiwork. Type: [newuser@localhost /newuser]# cat myfile
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Appending Standard Output
when you use replacing it. Type
>>, you re adding information, rather than
#cat home.txt >> sneakers.txt
Now let s check the file by typing:
#cat sneakers.txt
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Redirecting Standard Input
Just type:
#cat < sneakers.txt
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Using Output Redirection with Other commands
Type
$ date > date.dat $ cat date.dat $ ls > list.dat $ cat list.dat
Now combine these two files in file name combo
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The tee Utility
You can use the tee utility in a pipe to send the output of a command to a file while also sending the output to standard output. The utility takes a single input and sends the output in two directions.
$ ls-l | tee who.out
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touch command
This command updates the timestamp of a file or directory. If the named file does not exists, it will be created empty.
# touch file or directory
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Determining file type
file <filename> This command prints out the type of data contained in a file.
# file portrate.jpg
will tell you that portrate.jpg is a JPEG image data,
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Access statistics of a file or directory
You can use the stat program to get statistics on a file or directory. For example:
#stat /tmp
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which command
To locate the exact path of a program, you can use the which command Type
#which httpd
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cmp
Syntax: cmp [-Is] file1 file2 This command will compare the contents of two files. If there are no differences within the two files, cmp by default will be silent.
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cmp
To demonstrate, filel.txt contains: this is file 1 the quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.
and file2.txt contains: this is file 2 the quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.
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Demonstration of cmp
[root@localhost /root]# cmp file1.txt file2.txt file1.txt file2.txt differ: char 14, line 1
The results of cmp correctly identify character 14, line 1 as the unequal character between the two files.
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head
Syntax: head [-count | -n number] filename This command will display the first few lines of a file. By default, the first 10 lines of a file are displayed. However, you could use the preceding options to specify a different number of lines.
[root@localhost /root]# head -2 doc.txt
# Outline of future projects ff Last modified: 02/02/99
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tail
[root@localhost /root]# tail -50 doc.txt
[root@localhost /root]# tail -r doc.txt
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locate
An alternative command is locate <filename>. This searches through a previously created database of all the files on the system, and hence finds files instantaneously. Its counterpart updatedb is used to update the database of files used by locate. On some systems updatedb runs automatically every day at 04h00.
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grep
[root@localhost /root]# grep [-viw] pattern file(s)
The grep command allows you to search for one or more files for particular character patterns. Every line of each file that contains the pattern is displayed at the terminal. The grep command is useful when you have lots of files and you want to find out which ones contain words or phrases.
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grep
Using the option, we can display the inverse of a pattern. Perhaps we want to select the lines in data.txt that do not contain the word "the": If the option was not specified, then any word containing "the" would match, like "toge[the]r." The -w option specifies that the pattern must be a whole word. [root@localhost /root]# grep -vw 'the' data.txt And finally, the option ignores the difference between upper and lowercase letters when searching for the pattern.
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-v
-w
-i
LINUX BASED NETWORKS
Instructor: Muhammad Jahanger
Searching for files using find command
Change to the root directory, and enter find. find will work for a long time if you enter it as you have press Ctrl-C to stop it. Now change back to your home directory and type find again. You will see all your personal files.
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Searching for files using find command
There are a number of options find can take to look for specific files. find -type d will show only directories and not the files they contain. find -type f will show only files and not the directories that contain them, even though it will still descend into all directories.
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find (cont.)
find -name <filename> will find only files that have the name <filename>. For instance, find -name '*.c Will find all files that end in a .c extension without the quote characters will not work. find -name Mary Jones.letter will find the file with the name Mary Jones.letter. find -size [[+|-]]<size> will find only files that have a size larger (for +) or smaller (for -) than <size> kilobytes, or the same as <size> kilobytes if the sign is not specified.
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Try this
find / -name shutdown print find / -name core type f ok rm {} \; (remove file during search)
find / -name passwd type f ok cp {} /root \; (copy file during search) find . name *.gif atime 1 exec ls l {} \; (find all files that have been accessed during past 24 hrs) find . type f empty (This displays all empty files in the current directory)
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Exercise:
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Homework
Homework this week: Next week:
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