Lecture: 04

Compressibility &
Consolidation
Prepared by
Engr. Bakht Zamin
Asst. Professor
CECOS University Peshawar
[email protected]
Cell # 03349055147
Introduction
• Structures are built on soils. They transfer loads to the subsoil through
the foundations.

• The effect of the loads is felt by the soil normally up to a depth of about
four times the width of the foundation.

• The soil within this depth gets compressed due to the imposed stresses.

• The compression of the soil mass leads to the decrease in the volume of
the mass which results in the settlement of the structure.
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Introduction
• If the settlement is not kept to tolerable limit, the desire use of the structure
may be impaired and the design life of the structure may be reduced.

• It is therefore important to have a mean of predicting the amount of soil

compression or consolidation.

As Civil Engineers we need to provide answers for

1. Total settlement (volume change)

2. Time required for the settlement of compressible layer

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Compressibility
• Civil Engineers build structures and the soil beneath these structures is loaded.

• This results in increase of stresses leading to settlement of stratum.

• The settlement is due to decrease in volume of soil mass.

• Reduction in volume takes place due to expulsion of water from the voids.

• There will be rearrangement of soil particles in air voids.

• This rearrangement reflects as a volume change leading to compression.

• The rate of volume change is related to permeability of soil.
• The settlement is defined as the compression of a soil layer due to the loading applied at
or near its top surface.
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Compressibility
The total settlement consists of three components
1. Immediate settlement.
2. Primary consolidation settlement
3. Secondary consolidation settlement (Creep settlement)
St = Si + Sc + Ssc

1. Immediate or Elastic Settlement (Si): caused by the elastic deformation of

dry soil and of moist and saturated soils without change in the moisture
content. This settlement occurs immediately after the load is applied. This is
due to distortion (change in shape) at constant volume.
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Immediate or Elastic Settlement (Si):

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Compressibility
• 2. Primary Consolidation Settlement (Sc): volume change in saturated
cohesive soils as a result of expulsion of the water that occupies the
void spaces.
• During this process there is gradual
dissipation of pore water pressure.
• And increase of effective stress.
• This settlement occurs from the time water begins
move out from the pores to the time at which flow
ceases from the voids.
(total stress equal to effective stress).
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Primary Consolidation Settlement (Sc):
• Primary consolidation is a major component of settlement of fine grained
saturated soils and this can be estimated from the theory of consolidation.
• In case of saturated soil mass the applied stress is borne by pore water alone in
the initial stages
At t = 0 ∆σ= ∆u ∆σ´= 0
With passage of time water starts flowing out from the voids as a result the excess pore
water pressure decreases and simultaneous increase in effective stress will takes place.
The volume change is basically due to the change in effective stress ∆σ´.
• After considerable amount of time (t = ∞ ) flow from the voids ceases the effective
stress stabilizes and will be is equal to external applied total stress (∆σ´) and this
stage signifies the end of primary consolidation.
• At t = t1 ∆σ = ∆σ´+ u
• At t = ∞ ∆σ = ∆σ´ u = 0 (End of primary consolidation)
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Compressibility
3.Secondary Consolidation Settlement (Ss): volume change due to the
plastic adjustment of soil fabrics under a constant effective stress (creep).
• This is also called Secondary compression (Creep). “It is the change in
volume of a fine grained soil due to rearrangement of soil particles (fabric)
at constant effective stress”.
• The rate of secondary consolidation
is very slow when compared
with primary consolidation.

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Excess Pore water Pressure (∆u)
Excess pore water pressure is the pore pressure in excess of a
steady-state flow condition.
• It is represented by ∆u.
Du= h gw
Where h - Piezometric head
gw - Unit weight of water

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 Compressibility of saturated soil

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 Compressibility
• When saturated soil mass is subjected to external load decrease in volume takes place
due to rearrangement of soil particles.

• Reduction in volume is due to expulsion of water from the voids. The volume change
depends on the rate at which water is expelled and it is a function of permeability.
• The total vertical deformation (Consolidation settlement) depends on
1. Magnitude of applied pressure (∆σ)
2. Thickness of the saturated deposit

• Coarse grain soils do not undergo consolidation settlement due to relatively high
hydraulic conductivity compared to clayey soils. Instead Coarse-grained soils undergo
immediate
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settlement. 13
Consolidation Settlement
• Consolidation settlement is the vertical displacement of the surface
corresponding to the volume change in saturated cohesive soils as a result
of expulsion of the water that occupies the void spaces.

• Consolidation settlement will result, if a structure is built over a layer of

saturated clay or if the water table is lowered permanently in a stratum
overlying a clay layer.

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 Consolidation
• Consolidation is the time-dependent settlement of fine grained soils resulting
from the expulsion of water from the soil pores.
• The rate of escape of water depends on the permeability of the soil.
• Permeability of clay is low Drainage occurs slowly – therefore, the settlement is
delayed.

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Consolidation
• Clayey soils undergo consolidation settlement not only under the action of
“external” loads (surcharge loads) but also under its own weight or weight
of soils that exist above the clay (geostatic loads).

• Clayey soils also undergo settlement when dewatered (ground water

pumping) – because the effective stress on the clay increases.

• The rate of settlement is a function of the soil type, the geometry of the
profile (in 1-D consolidation, the length of the drainage path)

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Consolidation
The clay layer is shown as a phase diagram

The volume of solid remains constant

in the soil profile.

• Any change in height in the soil is equal

to the change in height of voids.

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 Fundamentals of Consolidation
Spring-cylinder model
• During consolidation, ∆σ remains the same, ∆u decreases (due
to drainage) while ∆σ́ increases, transferring the load from water to the soil.
• The time-dependent deformation of saturated clayey soil can best
understood by considering a simple model
that consist of a cylinder with a spring at its centre.
• The cylinder is filled with water and has a frictionless
watertight piston and valve.

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 Fundamentals of Consolidation
• If we place a load P on the piston and keep the valve closed.
The entire load will be taken by the water in the cylinder because water is
incompressible.
• The spring will not go through any deformation.
• The excess hydrostatic pressure at this
time can be given as Δu = P/A and the
• effective stress is equal to zero
• The compression of a spring mass system
is analogous to the consolidation of a
saturated fine grained soil deposit subjected to
external Pressure.
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Fundamentals of Consolidation
• Variation of total stress, pore water pressure, and effective stress in a
clay layer drained at top and bottom as the result of an added stress.

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Fundamentals of Consolidation
Spring-cylinder model
• If the valve is opened, the water will flow outward. This flow will be
accompanied by a reduction of the excess hydrostatic pressure and an
increase effective stress.

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Fundamentals of Consolidation
• Variation of total stress, pore water pressure, and effective stress in a
clay layer drained at top and bottom as the result of an added stress
∆σ :

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 Fundamentals of Consolidation
• Spring-cylinder model
• The spring is totally compressed with final value and the load carried
by water therefore now is zero and the entire load is carried by the
solids.

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Consolidation Test
• Laboratory consolidation test
• The oedometer test is used to investigate the 1-D
consolidation behavior of fine-grained soils.
1.Place sample in ring
2.Apply load
3.Measure height change
4.Repeat for new load after 24 hours.

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Consolidation Test

An undisturbed soil sample 25 mm in height and 75 mm in diameter is

confined in a steel confining ring and immersed in a water bath.
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Consolidation Test
It is subjected to a compressive stress by applying a vertical load, which is
assumed to act uniformly over the area of the soil sample.
• Several increments of vertical stress are applied usually by doubling the
previous increment.

• Two-way drainage is permitted through porous disks at the top and bottom

• The vertical compression of the soil sample is recorded using highly

accurate dial gauges.

• For each increment, the final settlement of the soil sample as well as the time
taken to reach the final settlement is recorded.
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Consolidation Test
• Laboratory consolidation test
• Assumption:
• Load distribution-uniform
• Stress distribution (in different height)-the same
• No lateral deformation
• The area of the sample section-unchangeable
• Solid soil-uncompressible

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Consolidation Test
• Laboratory consolidation test
• A laboratory consolidation test is performed on an undisturbed sample
of a cohesive soil to determine its compressibility characteristics.
• The soil sample is assumed to be representing a soil layer in the ground.
• A conventional consolidation test is conducted over a number of load
increments. The number of load increments should cover the stress range
from the initial stress state of the soil to the final stress state the soil
layer is expected to experience due to the proposed construction.

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Consolidation Test
• Determine the height of solids (Hs) of the specimen in the mold
• Determine the change in height (ΔH)
• Determine the final specimen height, Ht(f)
• Determine the height of voids (Hv)
• Determine the final void ratio.

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Consolidation Test
• The effective stress σ’ and the corresponding void ratios e
at the end of consolidation are plotted on semi logarithmic graph:
• In the initial phase, relatively great change
in pressure only results in
less change in void ratio e.
• The reason is part of the pressure
got to compensate the expansion
when the soil specimen was sampled.
• In the following phase e changes at a great rate

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Consolidation Test
• The general shape of the plot of deformation of the specimen against
time for a given load increment is shown below. From the plot, we can
observe three distinct stages:

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Consolidation Test
• The general shape of the plot of deformation of the specimen against
time for a given load increment is shown below. From the plot, we can
observe three distinct stages:

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Consolidation Test
• The general shape of the plot of deformation of the specimen against
time for a given load increment is shown below. From the plot, we can
observe three distinct stages:

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Consolidation Test
Laboratory consolidation test
• Increments in a conventional consolidation test are generally of 24 hr.
duration and the load is doubled in the successive increment.
• The main purpose of consolidation tests is to obtain soil data which is
used in predicting the rate and amount of settlement of structures
founded on clay.

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 Compressibility Parameters
■ Coefficient of Consolidation, Cv :

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Compressibility Parameters

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Compressibility Parameters

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Compressibility Parameters

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Compressibility Parameters

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Compressibility Parameters
• 5. Preconsolidation Pressure
Preconsolidation pressure can be determined as follow :
1.Establish point a, at which curve has
a minimum radius of curvature.
2.Draw a horizontal line ab.
3.Draw the line ac tangent at a.
4.Draw the line ad, which is the
bisector of the angle bac.
5.Project the straight-line portion gh
of the e–log σ’ plot back to intersect
line ad at f. The abscissa of point f is
the preconsolidation pressure.
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Compressibility Parameters
6. Coefficient of consolidation Cv
• The rate of consolidation settlement is estimated using the Coefficient
of consolidation Cv. This parameter is determined for each load
increment in the test.
• The coefficient of consolidation (Cv) can be determined by the
(Casagrande) Logarithm-of-Time and by (Taylor)
Square –Root of Time Methods.
(Self Study)

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Assignment no. 3
• How consolidation rate is increase?

• Discuss different techniques for it with neat sketches.

• Submission date: Next class

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Examples

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Radius of curvature

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