CELL

CYCLE
CELL CYCLE
– Is an ordered series of events
involving cell growth and cell
division that produces two new
daughter cells.
– The cell cycle has two major
phases: INTER-PHASE and the
MITOTIC PHASE.
INTERPHASE
INTERPHASE
The cell undergoes normal growth
processes while also preparing
for cell division.
The three stages of interphase
are called G1, S, and G2.
G1 PHASE (FIRST GAP)

During the G1 stage, the cell is

quite active at the biochemical
level.
In this stage the chromosome is
replicating each in the nucleus.
S PHASE (SYNTHESIS OF DNA)
– DNA replication can proceed
through the mechanisms that
result in the formation of
identical pairs of DNA
molecules- sister chromatids-
that are firmly attached to
centromeric region.
G2 PHASE (SECOND GAP)
– Cell replenishes its energy
stores and synthesizes proteins
necessary for chromosome
manipulation.
Control of the
cell cycle
Control of the cell cycle
– The length of the cycle is highly
variable, even within the cells of
a single organism.
Regulation of the cell cycle by
external events
– Both the initiation and inhibition
of the cell division are triggered
by events external to the cell when
it is about to begin the
replication process.
Regulation at the internal checkpoint

– Mistakes in the duplication or

distribution of the chromosomes
lead to mutations that may be
passed forward to every new cell
produced from an abnormal cell.
Cell cycle checkpoints
– To prevent o compromised cell from
continuing to divide, there are
internal control mechanisms that
operate at three main cell cycle
checkpoint.
The G1 checkpoint
– Determines whether all condition
are favorable for cell division to
proceed. Also called the
restriction point.
The G2 checkpoint
– Checkpoint bars entry into the
mitotic phase if certain condition
are not met. Ensure that all the
chromosomes have been replicated
and that the replicated DNA is not
damaged.
The M checkpoint
– The M checkpoint occur near the end
of the metaphase stage of
karyokinesis. Also known as the
spindle check point, because it
determines whether all the sister
chromatids are correctly attached
to the spindle microtubules.
MITOSIS
MITOSIS
– Is divided into a series of
phases- prophase, prometaphase,
metaphase, anaphase and
telophase- the result in the
division of the cell nucleus.
PROPHASE
– First phase, the nuclear
envelope starts to disassociate
into small vesicles, and
membranous organelles.
– Chromosomes condense and become
visible.
– Spindle fibers emerge from the
centrosomes.
– Nuclear envelope break down.
– Nucleolus disappears.
PROMETAPHASE
– First change phase many
processes that began in
prophase continue to advance.
– Chromosomes continue to condense.
– Kinetochores appear at the
centrosomes.
– Mitotic spindle microtubules
attach to kinetochores.
– Centrosomes move toward
appositive poles.
METAPHASE
– “Change phase”, all the
chromosomes are aligned in a
plane called the metaphase
plate, or the equatorial plane,
midway between the two poles of
the cell.
ANAPHASE
– “upward phase,” the cohesion
proteins degrade, and the
sister chromatids separate at
the centromere.
TELOPHASE
– “distance phase,” the
chromosomes reach the opposite
poles and begin to decondense,
relaxing into a chromatin
configuration.
CYTOKINESIS
– “ cell motion,” is the second
main stage of the mitotic phase
during which cell division is
completed via the physical
separation of the cytoplasmic
components into two daughter
cells.
MEIOSIS
– Sexual reproduction requires
fertilization, the union of two
cells from two individual organisms.
HAPLOID
– Cell contain one
set of
chromosomes.
DIPLOID
– Cell
containing
two sets of
chromosomes.
The number of sets of chromosomes in
a cell is called its ploidy level.
– The nucleus contains two copies of
each chromosome called homologous
chromosomes.
HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES
– Are matched
pairs containing
the same genes
in identical
locations along
their length.
SPORES
– are haploid cells
that can produce a
haploid organism
that will produce
gametes that fuse
with other gametes
to form diploid
cells.
– All animal and most of the plants
produce eggs and sperm, or GAMETES.
MEIOSIS I
– Is preceded by an interphase
consisting of the G1, S, and G2
phase, which are nearly identical
to the phases preceding mitosis.
PROPHASE 1
– before the chromosomes can be seen
clearly microscopically, the
homologous chromosomes are attached
at their tips to the nuclear
envelope by protein.
PROMETAPHASE 1
– Is the attachment of the spindle
fiber microtubules to the
kinetochore protein at the
centromeres.
METAPHASE 1
– the homologous chromosomes are
arranged in the center of the cell
with the kinetochores facing
opposite poles.
ANAPHASE 1
– the microtubules pull the linked
chromosomes apart.
– The sister chromatids remain
tightly bound together at the
centromere.
TELOPHASE 1 & CYTOKINESIS
- The separated chromosomes arrive at
opposite poles. The remainder of the
typical telophase events may or may
not occur, depending on the species.
MEIOSIS II
– The sister chromatids within the
two daughter cells separate,
forming four new haploid gametes.
PROPHASE II
– If the chromosomes decondensed in
telophase I, they condense again.
If nuclear envelopes were formed,
they fragment into vesicles.
PROMETAPHASE II
– The nucleus is completely broken
down, and the spindle is fully
formed.
METAPHASE II
– The sister chromatids are maximally
condensed and aligned at the
equator of the cell.
ANAPHASE II
– The sister chromatids are pulled
apart by the kinetochore
microtubules and move toward
opposite poles. Non-kinetochore
microtubules elongate the cell.
Telophase and Cytokinesis
– The chromosomes arrive at opposite
poles and begin to decondense.
Cytokinesis separates the two cells
into four unique haploids cells.
 Prokaryotic
cell division
– For unicellular organisms, cell
division is the only method to
produce new individuals.
Binary fission
– Karyokinesis is unnecessary because
there is no nucleus, thus, no need
to direct one copy of the multiple
chromosomes into each daughter
cell.