Why study Philosophy of Education?

• The Traditional Position:

Concerned with HOW education should be
done rather than WHY education should be
done.
 The problem of this position.
• When educators concern themselves with the
how of education without convincing
themselves of the why of it, the results is that
• We loose the motivation and vitality needed
to work
 Why Study Philosophy of Education?

• It attempts to provide the milieu or the

rationale for the work of education.
• (milieu– the physical and social conditions and
events which provide the environment in
which someone act or lives.)

--- ie. It provides the reason behind the how of

education.
 Our need today
• The preparation of a breed of
professional educators who
are able to focus their
“thoughts about purpose” and
to think about what they are
doing and why they are doing
it.
The Task of Educational Philosophy
• To bring future and current
teachers and other stakeholders in
education into face to face contact
with the large questions underlying
the meaning and purpose of
education and life in general.
 Expanding the rationale (4pts)
• 1. To help educators become acquainted
with the basic problems of education.

• 2. To enable educators to better evaluate

the wide variety of suggestions offered
as solutions to these problems.

• 3. To assist in clarifying thinking about

the goals of both life and education.
 Expanding the rationale cont.

4. To guide in the development of

an internally consistent point of
view and a program that relates
realistically to the larger world
context.
 Demystifying Philosophy
Schofield, 1972
• Most people unfortunately think
that “it deals with mysterious
matters far removed from
everyday life and that it traffics in
ideas which only the brilliant few
are capable of understanding’’.
 Philosophy is everywhere
• Philosophy is important and
relevant even to the ordinary man
in the street– the taxi driver,
the hair dresser, the matron etc
 DEFINITIONS
• Comes from a Greek word(noun)
“Philosophia”---
Two words: philo and sophia

philo----- love
sophia--- wisdom

PHILOSOPHY --- “ love of wisdom”

 Summary of the definition
• The study of wisdom
• The study of the fundamental
knowledge of a discipline.
• The study of the process by which
we construct our outlook on life.
• It is also the study of how people
acquire beliefs.
 Summary cont’d
• The basic beliefs and values that give meaning to
our experiences come from a lifetime of learning
through interpersonal contact, religion, education,
and the environment.
• --These beliefs and values determine the manner by
which persons relate to each other, the way they
work with each other and-to a large extent, the way
nurses care for patients.
• --in simple terms they direct behavior and attitude.
 summary
• Our philosophy is like a lens
through which we see things as
good, evil, healthful, sick,
socially or professionally
appropriate, irresponsible, and so
forth.
 Philosophies, Theories and Concepts

• -Philosophies, Theories, and Concepts

• --these organize facts into a structured
framework for viewing reality.
• Concepts: concepts are the building blocks of
theories
• --they are generally thoughts or ideas that are
intangible—they describe objects, properties,
events, and relationships among them.
• Process: this is the action phase of a conceptual
framework or theory
• --it is the act of moving forward to meet a goal. --
We need a goal to direct a process.
 What primary goal should teachers set for
themselves and their students?
• --what other goals could be considered?
• (discuss)
 Education as a Process
• The teaching process is the action phase
in applying teaching concepts in practice.
• We need a goal to direct the process of
education else education would become
disorganized and perhaps useless.
• Theories, concepts, and processes are
shaped by philosophies.
 The Teacher and Philosophy
• Teachers need philosophies, theories, and
concepts because teaching is a field of
diverse facts that need to be related to
specific teaching actions .
• --through theory development, teaching is
advancing professionally. Through
application, theory becomes reality.
 Philosophy as “love of wisdom”
• Mere love for wisdom does not
make one a philosopher.

• If the processes, rationale, as

well as the accruing benefits
are not explored and utilized
for social growth.
 What some scholars have said
Bertrand Russell,1991
--Russell puts philosophy between theology and science.
theology– deals with knowledge about God and the
supernatural.
-- grasped by faith.
-- knowledge not specific and definite
----thus all dogma as to what surpasses definite
knowledge belongs to theology.
---
Science– applies to human reasoning.
• --- the knowledge is definite and factual
• --- held together by rules and principles
• --- tested by the scientific method
• --- empirical in nature
• -------thus all definite knowledge belongs to
science
• The theologian cannot answer all
the questions of science just as
the scientist cannot answer all the
questions of theology.

• Philosophy therefore attempts to

study those questions that can
neither be answered by the
scientist nor the theologian.
 Schofield,1972
• --describes philosophy as “ the
process of asking questions”

• Characteristics of a philosophical question

1. Such questions must be purposive.
2. Must aim at unraveling the mysteries of life.
 Schofield’s assumption
• That knowledge is not stagnant but
dynamic.
• That through the asking of
appropriate questions we could
arrive at dynamic knowledge.
 Socrates (469-399BC)

• The Socratic Method

 Socrates(469-399BC)
• -A Greek philosopher born in Athens.
• --Socrates used the question and answer
technique– described as the Socratic Method or
Socratic dialogue.
• --he sought to lead students from a state of
unconscious ignorance through conscious
ignorance to reasoned truth.

Unconscious ignorance> conscious ignorance> reasoned truth

 Socrates- the “intellectual mid-wife”

• Importance of the Socratic Method

1. Helps in the clarification of peoples ideas
and avoidance of hasty conclusions.
2. Helps to rid peoples minds of errors and
pre-conceived ideas in order not to fall victim
to mediocrity (second-hand ideas).
3. Helps students recognize their own
limitations and shortcomings.
 Note
• Not all questions are philosophical.
• --Philosophical questions lead to growth and
development.
• -- Loaded questions or Leading questions must
possibly be avoided.
----- Leading and loaded questions stifle originality and
critical thinking.( two indispensable ingredients in
philosophical enquiries)
--philosophy without critical and profound thinking is like
a ship without rudder.
 Gyekye,1996
• Defines philosophy as “a rational,
critical and systematic inquiry into
the fundamental ideas underlying
human activities.
 Agyenim-Boateng’s Definition
• “ the cognitive compass that informs
thought, directs actions and provides
meaning and significance to life”

• “a journey from the known world which

takes us to the land where the unknown
is appreciated”
 An important distinction
• Your Worldview informs your Philosophy
• --discovering your world view is a significant
step toward the following:
• a)self-awareness
• b)self-knowledge
• c)self-understanding
 World View ---dfn.
• --This is a set of
presuppositions (assumptions
which may be true, partially
true or entirely false) which
we hold (consciously or
subconsciously, consistently
or inconsistently) about the
basic make-up of the world.
 The Work of Philosophy
• Thought of in three aspects:
• Philosophy as:
1. An Activity
2. A Set of Attitude
3. A Body of Content
As an Activity– 4 activities identified

• Synthesizing
• Speculation
• Prescribing
• Analyzing
 Synthesis
• Dfn. The mixing of different ideas,
influences or things to make a whole
which is different or new.
• Assumption: that man by nature has a desire and
need to possess a comprehensive and consistent
view of life.
• -- the believe is that this will provide a basis upon
which he may unify his thoughts, base his
aspirations and interpret his experiences.
 Synthesis – assumption cont.
• Rational existence demands a world view that adds
significance to individual actions by placing them in
their wider context.

• The Philosopher’s Role as a synthesizer.

• The philosopher seeks to unite and interpret mankind’s
specialized knowledge into a unified view of the world.
 Speculation
• Dfn. That which is based on a guess and not
on verified information.
• Assumption : that humans have limitations of
knowledge.
• --not enough scientifically verified data to provide
a basis for action.
• -- that some of the most important aspects of
human and universal existence cannot be fully
understood.
 Speculation cont.
• The Philosopher’s Role as a Speculator.
• --- he attempts to understand the unknown by
that which is known.
 Prescription
• Dfn. Saying exactly what must happen
especially by giving an instruction or
making a rule.
• Assumption.– humans naturally seek standards for
evaluating values in conduct and art.
• Expressing Prescription– this is done in terms of
how people ought to act or reach in a given
situation involving aesthetic judgment or moral
alternatives.
The Intrinsic Nature of Prescribing

• Intrinsic in prescribing is the task of

defining what is meant by good,
bad, right, wrong, beautiful and
ugly.
 The Aim of Prescriptive Philosophy

• -- to discover and illuminate principles for

deciding what actions and qualities are most
worthwhile.

• The Alternative to prescription is to face

every human decision making as if it were
unique.
 Analyse /Analysis
• Dfn. To study or examine
something in detail, in order to
discover more about it.
• Assumption---- to win people you
need to convince them of the
viability or soundness of your
position.
• --failure to do so will result in
alienation or to be misunderstood.
 The Nature of Analysis
• It focuses on an examination of human
language and our use of it in an attempt to
clarify our understanding of problems and how
they might be solved.
• In analysis the philosopher scrutinizes the use
of logic in an argument and examines such
words as “liberal”, “good”, “intelligence”, and
“motivation” in an attempt to evaluate their
meaning in varying context.
 Note:

• 20th Century philosophers have left the other

activities of philosophers and made analysis
their only function.
• Results: has led to a narrowness that has
largely sterilized the discipline and
robbed it of it’s meaning and relevance
for the daily activities of social life
• Meaningful and vital philosophy
contains an interaction and balance of
it’s four central activities.

• --these are synthesizing

speculation
prescribing
analysing
 As An Attitude
• Philosophers bring certain ways of thinking to
their task.
• Characteristics of a person who is philosophic-
minded may be thus listed: 4 listed
• 1) self-awareness,
• 2) comprehensiveness
• 3)penetration
• 4)flexibility
 Self-awareness
• A commitment to being as honest as possible
with ones self in regard to personal biases,
assumptions, and prejudices.

• ---- a difficult and elusive activity of human

existence is to come to grips with our personal
predispositions.
 Note

• It is impossible even to begin

to arrive at a correct
perspective of the world until
one realizes the color of the
glasses he is wearing.
 What will this awareness bring on board to
the philosopher?
• Once an individual becomes aware of
the effect of his personal
predispositions he needs to take this
information into account in both
interpretation and communication.
 Comprehensiveness
• Involves an inclination towards
collecting as much relevant data on a
subject as possible from a wide
spectrum of sources rather than being
satisfied with a narrow sample.
• (related to the synthesizing function of
philosophy)
 Penetration

• Dfn.—the desire that leads a person

to go as deeply into a problem as
skill, time and energy will allow.

• --it involves the squelching of the

inclination towards the superficial in
favor of a search for basic principles,
issues and solutions.
 Flexibility
• -- this is the antithesis of rigidity or psychological
set.
• --Flexibility is a form of sensitivity that enables
one to be able to perceive old problems in new
ways.
• --it includes the willingness to restructure ideas
in the face of sufficient evidence.
• --it includes the ability to envision viable
alternatives to a viewpoint.
 Flexibility NOT Indecisiveness

• Flexibility is more an issue of

one’s willingness –even readiness
to change a position given
sufficient reason.
Philosophy as a Body of Content
• The Content of Philosophy is better seen in
the light of questions rather than in the light
of answers.

• From the above we can conclude that

philosophy is the study of questions.
 Van Clere Morris

• Has said that “the crux of the matter is

asking the “right” questions.
• -- he means questions which are
meaningful and relevant.
• --the kind of questions people want
answered.
• --questions that will make a difference
in how they live and work
The Three Fundamental Philosophic Issues

• These are all represented in terms of the

Content of philosophy. They are:

• a) Metaphysics

• b) Epistemology

• c) Axiology
 AT
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An ib in m p
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PHILO Fl ex
SOPHY

Epistemology
Metaphysics

Axiology
CONTENT
 Education: Dimensions
• Scenario for study:
• A young man declares, “I am not going to get
married until after I finish my education”

• look at the context.

• Was he talking about education, learning or
schooling?
 The Conceptual Differences
• We need to become aware of these
differences in other to be able to use them
with precision.
 Schooling
• From the above scenario the young man
evidently meant that he would not get
married until he would finish with school.
• -- even though he used the word
education he was obviously referring to
schooling.

• What is Schooling?
 Schooling Defined:
• Dfn. Schooling is thought of as
attendance at an institution in
which teachers and students
operate in a prescribed manner.

• --schooling can thus be equated with

formal education.
 Implicit in Education
• Two ideas are implicit in the word:
• 1) Leading out into new knowledge and
experience.
• 2) Feeding and thereby growing and
developing.

• ----Both ideas point to the fact that education

is an essential process in human development
 Education: A Universal Practice
• Engaged in by all societies at all stages
of development.

• What about societies in the world

where there are no schools?-- To ask
that question is to equate education
with schooling.
 Education, Schooling and
Learning

• Education: describes the

total process of human learning
by which knowledge is imparted,
faculties trained, and skills
developed.
 Conceptual Differences
Education

Schooling

Learning

Training
 John A. Laska
• Makes a helpful distinction between learning and
education when he defined education as: “the
deliberate attempt by the learner or
someone else to control (or guide, or
direct, or influence, or manage) a
learning situation in order to bring
about the attainment of a desired
learning outcome(goal).”
 Perspectives from Laska’s definition

• 1) Education is not limited to schools.

• 2) Education is a lifelong process that can take
place in an infinite variety of circumstances
and contexts.
• 3) Education embodies the idea of deliberate
control by the learner or someone else towards
a desired goal.
• ----education is talked of as Directed Learning
• Schooling--- is just one
form in which education is
provided.
 Range of Forms in which Education is
Provided

• 1) Formal Education

• 2) Non-formal Education

• 3) Informal Education
 Group work: assignment
• Investigate the various forms in which
education can take place by the following:
• a) Define the various forms of education
• b) Identify their unique characteristics
• c) In each form of education you discuss, give
not less than four examples to explain your
point.
 Learning
• “the process that produces the
capacity of exhibiting new or changed
human behavior or which increases
the probability that new or changed
behavior will be elicited by a relevant
stimulus”
 Learning cont’
• Learning therefore is a process that unlike
schooling, is not limited to an institutional
context.
• It is possible to learn individually or with
someone else.
• A person can learn in a school, but can also
learn if he has never been to a school.
• Learning therefore becomes a life-long process
that can occur anytime and at any place.
 Training
• Dfn. The process of learning the skills you
need to do a particular job or activity.

• Example: a training course,

• a teacher- training college etc.
• The difference between the concepts dwell
more on the basis of the development of
understanding.

• A development of understanding is
inherent in education while as unreflective
response activity is generally associated
with training and learning.
 Training cont’d
• Training can take place at the
animal level.

• Education is essentially a human

process.

• Education may at times include

some training aspects .
• Training is a subset of
education just as
education is a subset of
learning.
SCH
O OL
ING
TRAINING

EDUCATION

LEARNING
 The Role of The School in Society
• The school is just one agent of society
for learning, education, and training.

– Consider the other agents:

 Other Agents of Education
• 1) Family
• 2)Media
• 3) Peer group
• 4) The Church, Mosque, other worship
centers.
• 5) other institutions that share this
responsibility
 School: a minor partner in education

• The “Teacher”, therefore, in the

fullest sense of the word may not be
an employee of a school system– he
may be a broadcaster , parent,
pastor, Sunday school teacher, a
peer.
 The School
• The school therefore exist in a complex milieu
(environment).

• To complicate matters, the components of the

milieu may not all be espousing the same
message in regard to reality, truth and value--
these are all philosophic issues, thus
explaining why the teacher should have a
philosophy to live by.
 As a Body of Content(3)

• 1) Metaphysics

• 2) Epistemology

• 3) Axiology
 Metaphysics

• The branch of philosophy that deals with the

nature of reality. It posses the question:

• What is ultimately real?

• Dfn. An English translation of the Greek
expression – ‘ ta meta physica’ which
means
• “things beyond the physical realm”
• It represents the speculative and
synthesizing activities of philosophy
Four(4) Subsets of Metaphysical Questions

• 1) Theological Questions

• 2) Cosmological Questions

• 3) Anthropological Questions

• 4) Ontological Questions
 Theological Aspects
• Consists in the study of religious theory that
has to with conceptions of and about God or
the supernatural.
• Questions a sked include:
• Is there a God?(if yes, is there one or more)
• What are the attributes of God?
• --if God is both good and all powerful , how is
it that evil exist?
• Are there such things as angels , Satan and the
Holy Spirit? --- if so what are their relationship to
God.

• People have tried to answer these questions in

varied ways.
• Assignment: Identify the various ways people
have related to or perceived God or the
supernatural. Give examples in support.
 Varied Perceptions
• Atheist
• Pantheist
• Deist
• Theist
• Polytheism
• Monotheism
 Cosmological Aspects
• Consists in the study of and theories about the
origin, nature, and development of the
universe as an orderly system.

• Questions Asked Include:

• How did the universe originate and develop?
• Is there a purpose towards which the universe
is heading to?
 Anthropological Aspects
• This deals with the study of man.
• --this is a unique category in that
unlike the other categories of
human investigation, man is both
the subject and the object of
inquiry– when man philosophizes
about man, he is speaking about
himself.
 Questions asked
• What is the relation between mind and body?
• Is the mind more fundamental than the body
with the body depending on the mind or vice
versa.
• What is man’s moral status? (is he born good,
evil or morally neutral?)
• To what extent is man free?
• Does man Have a soul?
 Ontological Aspects
• This deals with the study of the nature
of existence. What it means for
anything to be.

• J. Donald Butler– has coined the word

“isology” as a synonym for ontology
since the ontological task is to
determine what we mean when we say
that something is
 Questions asked
• Is basic reality found in matter of physical
energy.(ie the world we can see or is it found in
spirit or spiritual energy?
• Is it composed of one element(eg. Matter or
spirit) or two (matter and spirit).
• Is reality orderly and lawful in itself of is it
merely orderable by man?
• Is it fixed and stable, or is change it’s central
feature?
Importance of Metaphysics in Education

• Assignment: Encourage class to investigate the

importance of metaphysics in the educational
process. (Make reference to Oti - Agyen
pp39,40)
 EPISTEMOLOGY
• From the Greek “episteme”---
knowledge

Deals with: 1. the nature, 2. the

sources 3. validity of knowledge.
 Questions asked
• What is true?
• How do we know?
• Is knowledge relative ?
• Is knowledge subjective?
 Dimension of Knowledge
• Represented in the various theories
of the nature of knowledge that
philosophers grapple with.
 These include the following:
• Dogmatism

• Skepticism

• Agnosticism
 Dogmatism
• The believe that we were created with
the ability to know.
• It also suggests the certainty of
knowledge.
• Ie. The true knowledge of the ultimate
reality is possible.
• Christians and Moslems hold on to this
position.
 Skepticism
• The position that it is impossible to know
anything.
• That knowledge is beyond the grasp of man.
• They adopt a questioning attitude towards
knowledge until it can be subjected to
rigorous examination.
 Agnosticism
• This is the profession of ignorance.
• ie. They are not sure whether they know
or not
---this profession of ignorance is
particularly in reference to the existence
or non-existence of God, rather than a
positive denial of any valid knowledge.
 What happens when people accept that
reality/truth can be known?

• 1. they must decide through what

sources reality may be known.
• 2. they must have some conception of
how to judge the validity of their
knowledge.
• --- in the process they ask question
 Is truth relative or absolute?

-- is truth subject to change?

-- is it possible that what may be true

today may be false tomorrow?

Refer to notes
 Is knowledge subjective or objective?

• Van Clere Morris– has suggested three(3)

positions concerning the objectivity of knowledge.
• 1. Knowledge comes to us from the
“outside”and is inserted into our minds.-
----man a recipient
• 2. The knower contributes something in this
engagement of himself with the world and is
partially responsible of his knowledge
• ---man a participant
• 3. That humans exist as “pure subjects”
who become the manufacturers of truth
rather than either it’s recipient or
participant.--- man a manufacturer
 Is there truth independent of human
experience?
• The independence of truth is viewed in terms
of two concepts : a) a priori b) a posteriori
• A priori knowledge—refers to truth that
some thinkers claim is built into the very
fabric of reality. It is independent of a human
knower and is true whether any human
accepts it or not.
• -- this type of truth is said to exist prior to
human experience of it and is independent
of human awareness.
• A posteriori knowledge–
knowledge that some thinkers
claim is dependent on human
experience of it and of human
awareness.

• See note
 Types of Knowledge– (5)
• Revealed Knowledge

• Empirical /Scientific Knowledge—a posteriori

• Rational Knowledge – a priori

• Intuitive Knowledge

• Authoritative Knowledge
• Assignment: Group work.
• Group is to investigate the various types of
knowledge by identifying their unique
characteristics and their limitations if any, in
terms of education delivery.
 Epistemology and Education

• Epistemology has a direct impact on

education on a moment-by-moment
basis.

• How? Discuss
Epistemology and Education cont’d
• Once epistemological assumptions about the
various sources of knowledge will certainly be
reflected in curricula emphasis and teaching
methodologies.
• Eg. Because Christian teachers believe in
revelation as a source of valid knowledge they
will want to include it in the curriculum and a
role for the Bible in educating the leaner
• -- This is to further suggest that their
philosophic world view will shape the
presentation of every topic.

• Epistemological assumptions concerning the

communication of knowledge from one person
or thing to another person will also impact
upon his teaching and the function of the
teacher.
Axiology or Theory of Values

• Axiology seeks to answer the

question :

• What is of value?

• What is good, bad, right or

wrong, means and ends?
 Assumption for Axiology
• Man’s desire or interest in value stems from
the fact that he is a valuing being.

• A rational individual and social life is based

upon a system of values.
• Note: a major aspect of education is the
development of preferences.(preferences are
usually based on once value system)
 Axiological Systems
• Axiological systems are built upon
conceptions of reality and truth.

• The question of value therefore deals

with notions of what a person or a
society conceives as being good or
preferable.
 Charles Morris: Identifies two(2)types of
values

• Conceived values– these are values that

men verbalize, but may not actualize.

• Operative Values– these are values that

men act upon.
• See notes
 The School: an axiological
theater
• The school therefore is an axiological
theater in which the teacher cannot
hide his moral self.
• --here teachers constantly instruct by
their actions to groups of highly
impressionable young people who
assimilate their teacher’s value
structures to a significant extent.
The Two(2) Branches of Axiology

• Ethics

• Aesthetics
 Ethics
• The Greek root: “ethos”
• --- simply means “habit, custom,law”; it
designated what was customary.

• --The Latin root “mos”(pl “mores”)

• —morality)
 Defining Ethics
• Ethics is the philosophical and rational
study of morality. ( Oti-Agyen, p48)
• When we talk of morality we think of a
set of social rules and standards that
guide the conduct of people in a culture
or society
• This is sometimes called moral
philosophy
Two Broad Classifications of Ethics

• Teleology

• Deontology
 Teleological
• From the Greek: “telos”
• --- end, goal, logos(word, doctrine,science)

• Refers to the study of the end or goal of an ethical action.

• Teleological theories postulate that “the basic or ultimate
criterion or standard of what is morally right or wrong,
obligatory.etc. is the comparable amount of good
produced or rather the comparative balance of good over
evil produced.”
• See note
Teleologist try to answer the question

• Whose good should one

promote?
 Two thoughts in answer are shared

• 1. That we should promote “our own

personal good”.
• --this is known as Ethical Egoism.

• 2. That we should promote “the universal

good.”
• -- this is also known as Ethical Universalism
 Deontology
• Greek root: “deontos”
• “deon” means duty
• -- that which is obligatory, a duty
and logos-word, teaching doctrine

• --it is commonly used to designate an ethical

approach in which the obligation to keep and
follow a moral rule or principle is of decisive
importance in ethical behaviour.
 The argument of ethical deontology

• That some acts are morally right or

even wrong independent of their
end or consequences.
 Werner Von Braun-(1912-77)
(German-born American rocket scientist)
• “ If the world’s ethical standards fail to rise
with the advance of our technological
revolution, we shall perish”

• --science and technology in themselves are

neutral– but the uses to which they are
put involve ethical considerations
• See note
 Aesthetics
• Dfn. – the branch of
philosophy concerned with
art, sculpture, painting,
balance, form, style, taste,
etc.
 Eliot Eisner,
to the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development

• “ There’s an aesthetic dimension to

everything. Every school environment,
every teaching act, every setting you
create to spend time in, enhances or
diminishes the quality of life. Whether
you’re teaching science or art, the
challenge is to make it beautiful.”
 The emphasis
• The emphasis here is on the
theoretical aspects of art rather
than the actual work of art or
the technical criticism of it.
 Aesthetics: ranks the most
controversial human study

• Why?
• It relates closely to imagination and
creativity, and it therefore tends to
become highly personal and
subjective.
 Discussion question

• How can we practically bring our

aesthetic views to bear on the
school environment and in our
personal lives.?
• How can we guide against any
excesses.?
 Traditional Philosophies and
Education

• Idealism

• Realism

• Neo-scholasticism
 IDEALISM
• Associated with PLATO
• Born in Athens in 428/27 BC
(Socrates was about 42years then)
--He was a well-to-do aristocrat coming
from one of the most distinguished
families in Athens.
--He was a pupil of Socrates and had a
profound affection and respect for him.
Christian theology and philosophy: much the
product of Platonic ideas.

Important Works in the Philosophy of

Plato:
First : Utopia
Second: The Theory of Ideas
Third: The Theory of Immortality
Fourth: His Cosmogony
Fifth: The Theory of Knowledge
 Idea-ism
• At its core , Idealism tries to explain all
existence in terms of the mind ie. Ideas
• --rather than the material things we see.

• Maintains that nothing exist except in

the mind of God
• the mind of man
• in the mind of the supernatural
 To the Idealist
• All material things are explainable in
term of the mind standing behind them.

• Truth cannot be achieved by the senses

which reveal merely the appearance
rather than the true nature of things
 The Goal of Education by the Idealist

• The development of the

mind(spiritually) to reach perfection
should be the ultimate goal of
education.
 Plato and Truth
• He defined “truth” as that which is
perfect and eternal.
• Plato’s premise: that the world of our
daily existence is constantly changing.
Truth therefore, could not be found in
the imperfect and transitory world of
matter.
 Plato’s Universal Truth
• Plato believes that there were universal
truth upon which all people could agree.
Such truth were found in mathematics :
• Example: 5+7=12, has always been true(a
priori truth)
• It was his contention that universal truth
exists in every realm including politics,
religion, ethics and education.
How to arrive at Universal Truth

• To arrive at universal truth Plato

moved beyond the ever changing
world of sensory data to the world
of ideas.
 Akinpelu(1972)
• “ the kernel of their (Idealist) philosophy
which is the emphasis on the spiritual self
and the personality of the individual as the
target of education are still most relevant.
Whatever material advantage that
education may confer on the individual, it
is still his character and his personality that
is of ultimate importance”
 Schofield(1972)-explains
• “ the philosophy of Plato and
the Christian religion are
forms of Idealism. Both
postulate that “man’s life is an
upward striving”
Modern developers of Idealism

• Rene Descartes (1596-1650)

• George Berkeley (1685-1753)
• Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
• George Wildhelm
• Freidrick Hegel (1770-1831
William T Harris (1835-1909)

• Most influential American

educational idealist.
• He founded the “Journal of
Speculative Philosophy”
• Later became the US
Commissioner of Education
 Key Issues in Idealism
• 1. The mind is the principle of
explanation, and knowledge of
anything, even of the mind itself is
the product of the mind.

• 2. The mind is different from matter.

• 3. There can be no object without a

subject thinking about it.
The Idealist and Metaphysics
• 1. The nature of the universe is the
mind/idea.

• 2. The universe is divided into two parts:

the sensory or the empirical aspect and
the Real World.

• 3. The Real World is the world of ideas,

which can only be reached through the
intellect. (it is beyond the sensory world)
• 4. They believe in God (The Idea) as the
Ultimate Reality and consider Him as the
perfect model to imitate.
• 5. They believe that the “sensory” or the
“empirical” world is a mere reflection of the
actual world of the mind.
• 6.It postulates that we should withdraw from
the use of our senses and rely solely on the
use of the intellect.
The Idealist and Epistemology

• 1.All eternal objects must be known by

the mind and pronounced upon before
we can say they exist.

• 2. If the mind does not know an object,

then that object is non-existent.
--Esse est percipi–
“for a thing to exist it has to be
perceived”
 Idealist and Epistemology cont’d
• 3. Their approach to issues are
mainly rational in nature—
making abundant use of deductive
logic.
---- deductive logic: the process of
reasoning from general principles
to more specific ones.
 Cont’n
• 4. They uphold the principle or
Theory of Coherence.

• Theory of Coherence: that the

pieces of information which the
mind has gathered must fit well
into each other and more
importantly, must cohere with
other proven pieces of knowledge
The Idealist and Axiology
1. God is the centre of all that is valuable
--He is our perfect example and model.
--In Him is rooted all that is worthwhile and
noble and consequently must be emulated.

• “Man is most moral when his behavior is in

accord with the Ideal and Universal Moral
Law”
• 2. The spiritual development of men
must take precedence over all other
values or needs--- food, clothing ,
shelter etc.

• “ the process of refining the mind to

be in tune with the Ultimate Reality
should be the main pre-occupation
of humanity and of education”
• 3. In terms of aesthetics (beauty)
the Idealist considers what is
beautiful to be an equivalent of
the Ideal ---thus art forms,
paintings, sculpture etc. must be
imitators of nature and what is
spiritual
 Music
• Stressed as the highest form of
aesthetic creation.
• ---music they believe cuts across to
the heart of the Absolute– the
Supreme Deity.
• --- it has the capacity to link man to
the supernatural in more positive
ways than can be estimated.
 The Idealist and Education
• 1. Education must aim at the development of
the student’s inner-self, his conscious and
spiritual self.

• 2. To bring the student as close as possible

to Absolute Truth.
• -- Education is an aid in the process of
attaining this goal.
• --Its end should be the realization of ideal
humanity through character and intellectual
attainment.
• 3. Education should essentially be concerned
with inculcation of morality into students.

• 4. Education should be based on our

established values, culture, history and
traditional institutions.
• --the learning of cultural values, national
histories, have the potential of making the
student patriotic , law abiding, and morally
upright
 The Prime Work of Education: the
transmitting of such values
• Finally---Education is expected to
subordinate the interest of the
student to the larger interest of
the state.
-- National aspirations and goals
must therefore take precedence
over individual goals as Plato
advocated in his Utopia.
 Akinpelu’s 4 essential components on the
Idealist’s Curriculum
• 1. Language Skills– will introduce student
into culture.
• 2. Scientific Skills– will introduce student to
the orderliness in nature to enable him
appreciate the God of nature.
• 3. Normative Skills– will introduce student to
moral issues– proper relationship with his
fellow men and his God.
• 4. Aesthetic Skills– appreciation of literature,
art, beauty and art in general
 Idealism in Focus
• 1. The aim of education should be to build up
the mind of the student.
• 2. That which is most basic in the universe is
the mind. Matter is a by-product of the mind.
• 3. The Absolute self is the being you ought to
emulate in your life.
• 4. The world known through human senses is
not the real world.
 Cont’d
• 5. The very hub of the educational process is the
library.
• 6. Holds that the school should be a conservative
institution.
• 7. Holds that there are truths and values that are
eternal.
• 8. Books stand at the centre of the educational
process because they bring us into contact with ideas.
• 9. Ultimate reality resides in the Absolute mind.
 Assignment: Group Work
1. Identify the Idealist’s view of the
following:
• A. The teacher
• B. The student
• C. The curriculum
• D. His teaching methodology.

2. Discuss the criticisms against the

Idealist philosophy.
 REALISM
• Associated with Aristotle
• Born c348BC , at Stagira in Thrace
• Father: the family physician to the king
of Macedonia.
• At the age of 18, he came to Athens to
become the pupil of Plato in his
Academy.
• Remained in the Academy for nearly 20
years until the death of his master, Plato
in 368-7BC
• He became tutor to Alexander, then 13 years.
• ( at 16 Alexander's father declared him of age
and was appointed regent during Philip’s
absence)
 Aristotle as a Philosopher
• Like his predecessors, he also formed his own
school known as the Lyceum.

• (In many ways different from his predecessors.)

• -- The first to write like a Professor:
• a. his treaties are systematic
• b. his discussions are divided into headings.
• c. he was a professional teacher
• d. a critical, careful, pedestrian
 His Works
• 1.Tradition maintains that he formed the first great
library by collecting hundreds of manuscripts, maps,
and specimens which he used as illustrations during
his lectures.

• 2. He formulated a special common meal and

symposium once a month where a member was
selected to defend a philosophical position against the
critical objections of other members.
 His works cont’
• 3. He invented formal logic.

• 4. He also invented the idea of the separate

sciences--- he saw a close connection
between logic and science.

• 5. Categories and the Starting Point of

Reasoning.
 Other Works

• 6. The Syllogism– a system of logic based on

premises
• eg:( major premise: all humans are mortals
• minor premise: Steve is a mortal
• conclusion: therefore, Steve is a mortal )

• 7. Substance as the Primary Essence of

Things.
--we know a thing better when we know what it is, than
when we know the color, size, or posture of it.)
• 8. Matter and Form– distinguished between matter and form
but maintains that in nature we never find matter without form
or form without matter.

• 9.The Process of Change: The four Causes

• ( a. what is it ? b. what is it made of? c. by what is it made? d.
for what end is it made of?

• 10. Potentiality and Actuality

• 11. The Unmoved Mover– the ultimate of all change

 Realism expanded
• Arose as a reaction to Idealism
• The illustration of the tree on an island:
• The Idealist Position: the tree exists only if it is in
some mind( including the mind of a transcendent
being) or if there was a knowledge of it.
• The Realist Position: whether or not anyone is
thinking about the tree, it nevertheless exists– ie.
matter is independent of the mind
 Aristotle and Realism
• Maintains that the basic constituents of every
object are form and matter.
• FORM: equated with Plato’s conception of idea.
• MATTER: seen in terms of the material making
up any particular sensory object.
• ----Form can exist without matter( eg. The idea
of God; but there can be no matter without
form (agrees with idealism)
 Point of Departure
• Believes that a better understanding of
universal ideas could be obtained through the
study of particular things or matter.
• Focus: study conceptions of universal forms
through the study of material objects.
• -- Aristotle laid a basic structure for this which
has evolved into the modern physical life and
social sciences' ( wrote extensively on physics ,
botany, zoology, sociology, psychology, logic etc
 Modern Proponents of Realism
• Francis Bacons(1561-1626)-inductive
methodology-- the scientific method

• John Locke(1632-1714)- proposed the human

mind is a blank sheet(tabula rasa) the receives
impressions from outside.

• Harry S. Broudy- has made a strong argument

than anyone for realism in modern education.
 Realism in Focus
• 1. The object of our senses exist in their own right
quite independently of their being known by a mind.

• 2. The curriculum should focus on science and

maths.

• 3. Whatever exist at all exists in some amount. To

know it thoroughly involves its quantity as well as
its quality.
 Cont’d
• 4. In other to understand ethics, a person should study
the Laws of nature.

• 5. Photography is an art form.

• 6. The use of object lessons and individual techniques

stands at the very heart of teaching methods.

• 7. Holds that the school is a conservative institution.

 Cont’d
• 8. Holds that there are truths and values that
are eternal.

• 9. Maintains that values are rooted in nature.

• 10. A student ought to use his senses so that he

can discover the natural laws built into the
fabric of the universe.
 Group Work
• Students to identify the Realist view of the following
in their reading:
• Methaphysics Methodology
• Epistemology
• Axiology
• Education
• The Student
• The Teacher
• The Curriculun
 Neo-Scholasticism
• An intellectual movement developed in
Western Europe between 1050 and 1350.
• Aristotle’s writings in Christian Europe
stimulated the rise of Scholasticism.
• --- the scholastics sought to organize the data
of revelation systematically by the use of
Aristotelian logic and to harmonize the ideas
of revelation with the philosophy of Aristotle
 Essence of Neo-Scholasticism
• Seen as an attempt to rationalize
theology in order to buttress faith
by reason- rationalism
 Thomas Aquinas(1225-1274)
• The foremost scholar in this challenge
• --the arguments advanced in his work
the Summa Theologica

• Basic Approach---to acquire as much

knowledge as possible through the use
of human reason and then to rely on
faith in the realm beyond the scope of
human understanding.
 The Philosophy of Thomas
Aquinas –called Thomism
• Currently accepted as the official philosophic
position of the Roman Catholic Church.

• Neo-Scholasticism – is a new or updated form

of scholasticism with its’ emphasis on, and
appeal to human reason.
 The Methaphysics of Neo Scholasticism– a
two sided coin
• On one side is the natural world that is open
to reason.
• On the other side is the supernatural realm
which is opened through intuition, revelation,
and faith.
• Aristotle referred to the Ultimate Reality as
the First Cause of an Unmoved Mover.

• Aquinas equated Aristotle’s First Cause or

Unmoved Mover with the Christian God
Epistemology of Neo-Scholasticism
• Based on the premise that the human
mind is naturally oriented towards the
rationality of the universe, ie.
• --the mind can take hold of certain
truths by itself– it can intuit truth
 Axiology of Neo-Scholasticism
• On Morals:
• --that a moral life (Ethics) is the
life that is in harmony with
reason.
• -Man is basically a rational being,
and the good act is controlled by
his rationality.
 Who is a good man?
• A good man is one whose desires
and will are subservient to his
intellect.
• ---If he knows what is right he will do it
because it is reasonable to do what is
good.
 Neo-Scholasticism: The Student
• The student is a rational being who has the
natural potential to acquire Truth or
Knowledge .

• Religious Neo-scholasticism : sees the learner

as a spiritual being who may relate to God
 The Responsibility of the School

• To help the student develop

his rational capabilities– the
natural potential to acquire
Truth and Knowledge through
rational thinking.
 Faculty Psychology: the view of the neo-
scholastic
• Here the mind is thought of as having different
potentials or faculties which must be carefully
developed. (Three Faculties Identified)
• -- the faculty of reason is trained through the formal
discipline inherent in the study of those subjects
having the most logical organization.eg
mathematics, foreign languages(Latin and Greek-
these are systematically rigorous)
• -- the faculty of memory is developed by having
students memorize.
• -- the faculty of the will is strengthened by
having the student engage in tasks that
require a high degree of perseverance for
completion. Eg projects, experimentation,
adventurous trips etc

• Through such procedures, the faculties are

developed and the will is brought under
submission to reason.
 The Teacher

• Viewed as a mental disciplinarian

with the capacity of developing
reason, memory, and will power in
his students.
 Religious Neo-scholasticism
• Religious Neo-scholasticism--Sees the role of
the teacher to be that of a spiritual leader as
well as a mental disciplinarian.

• Secular Neo-scholasticism– insists that since

man is a rational being the curriculum should
give priority to the cultivation of the rational
aspect of man.– education should focus on
sharpening the intellect to enable the student
understand the ABSOLUTE OF THE COSMOS
 Subject Choice
• Those subject matters having internal logic
should be at the center of the curriculum.
• Eg. Mathematics– considered as the nearest
approach man has made to Pure Reason.
• --not contaminated by the irregularities of the
ordinary affairs of men.
• Foreign Languages—especially those that are
rigorously systematic.
• Logic– its orderly and systematic nature
 Methodology
• Lectures
• Demonstrations
• Project work
• Field work
• Experimentation
• Presentations
 MODERN PHILOSOPHIES

• Pragmatism

• Existentialism
 PRAGMATISM
• It is America’s contribution to the history of
philosophical thought
• Has become popular during the last one
hundred years.
• Associated with: Charles S. Peirce(1839-1914)
• William James (1842-1910)
• John Dewey (1859-1952) –
most noted especially as it relates to education
 The Basic Theory
• That truth can be known only
through it’s practical
consequences:
• --- thus truth becomes an
individual or a social matter
rather than an absolute.
 Basic Assumption
• That the value of an idea is measured by
the consequences produced when it is
translated into action.
• Thus “thought”(what is in the mind) is
intrinsically connected with action.
• --eg. A “land of honey” somewhere
beyond the skies is nothing and useless
if that blissful state cannot be enjoyed
here and now
 William James: Definition
• “ The attitude of looking away
from first things, principles,
‘categories’ supposed necessities;
and of looking towards last things,
fruits, consequences, facts”
 Philosophical Emphasis
• Empirical science
• The changing world and its
problems.
• Nature as the all-inclusive reality
beyond which their faith in
science would not allow them to
go.
 Philosophical Position
• Reality should be experiential
-if reality is metaphysical (as explained by
traditional philosophy)then human beings
have no way of knowing about it.
• --mind and matter are not two separate and
independent substances. People only know
about matter as they experience it and
reflect upon this experience with their
mind.
Reality, therefore is never divorced from
the human mind.
• With the passage of time, man’s experience
changes and therefore the pragmatist’s
conception of reality changes.
---he allows for no absolute, no a priori
principles, or unchanging natural laws.
Reality is a transactional experience that is
constantly undergoing change.
--The seeking of knowledge is a transaction.
(man acts on the environment and then
undergoes certain consequences and learns
as a result.)
Truth is that which Works
• Pragmatism is basically an
epistemological undertaking.
• Knowledge, according to the pragmatist,
is rooted in experience.
--Man has an active and exploratory
mind and does not simply receive
knowledge; he makes it as he interacts
with the environment. ----Distinguishes
between knowledge and belief
 Values From Society
• Values are relative and there are
no absolute principles on which
we can lean.
--As cultures change ,so do
values.
-The criterion of good conduct
could be defined from the position
of the pragmatist, as the social
test. That which is ethically good
is that which “works”
 On the Ten Commandments
• Pragmatist validates only the last
six commandments of the
Decalogue ( those dealing with
relationships between people)
while ignoring the first four(those
dealing with the relationship
between man and God)which they
claim were impossible to test by
empirical means.
 The Pragmatist’s View of Education

• Highly expounded by John Dewey

• Education is the reconstruction and
organization of experience which
increases ability to direct the course of
subsequent experience
• This implies helping the learner to
develop in such a way as to contribute to
his continued growth.
 Cont’
• One major aim of education is to provide the
conditions that make growth possible.
• Education is seen as life and not a
preparation for life.
• --- this means that education should be
related to the experience, interest and
aspiration of the learner.
• Intelligence was thus an instrument for living,
not an end in itself.
 View of the student
• The student is an experiencing organism capable of
using intelligence to solve problems.
• --he learns as he/she experiences; and as he/she does or
undergoes
• The student is also seen as a whole organism constantly
interacting with the environment.
• The student is also seen as a biological, psychological
and social child who brings to the school, values and
experiences that constitute his personality and therefore
makes him unique and should be treated as such.
 Views of the teacher
• He is a member of the learning group who serves in
the capacity of a helper, guide, and arranger of
experiences.
• --he is as involved in the learning process as his
students.
• Should not be an authoritarian, trying to impose his
will on them.
• On the other hand, he should not be the spectator or
the laissez-faire type as suggested in Rousseau’s or
the progressive’s type of child-centered education .
 Views of the teacher cont’d
• Teacher should serve as a resource person to
whom the learner refers those problems,
which he/she could not tackle personally.
 Views on the curriculum
(Subject Matter)
• Any educative experience contributing to growth is
the subject matter of the pragmatist’s curriculum.
• The Sciences—should not be learnt merely as laws
and theories but in such a way that will help the
learner to explore and discover knowledge for
himself- physics, chemistry, biology.
• The Social Sciences– they are important as they
represent the social environment and the factors
which affect human behavior in the community–
sociology, psychology, social structure.
 Pragmatist curriculum cont’d
• The humanities are also important as they
deal with cultural heritage– history, ethics
geography.
----Aesthetic subjects like art, drama, literature
and music should also be taught to help the
learner develop creative abilities
• Language should be taught as an instrument
of communication.
 methodology
• 1.Teaching must be must be child centered
• 2.It must involve activity or learning by doing.
• 3. Group method of co-operative learning in
highly recommended.
• 4. Emphasis on experimentation and the use
of the scientific method
• Classroom discussion in a free and open
atmosphere is encouraged.
 Existentialism (Jean-Paul Sartre)
• In simple terms—
• That people have no given identity until they have
made specific decisions and have chosen their work
and have thereby defined themselves.
• Has to do with human beings in their concrete
existence – human beings as thinking, feeling and
acting individuals.
• Focuses on the existing individual person ; instead of
searching for truth in distant universal concepts.
• Forge your own destiny– no room for the supernatural.
 Existentialism
• Assignment
• Conduct a group investigation on
Existentialism as an educational
philosophy
Contemporary Educational Theories
(8 Theories)

• 1. Behaviorism

• 2. Reconstructionism

• 3. Perennialism

• 4. Progressivism
• 5. Essentialism

• 6. Educational humanism

• 7. Deschooling

• 8. Futurisms
 1. Progressivism
• The most influential of all the educational
theories.
• Focuses on the concept of progress as it
relates to helping children progressively learn
to adapt to an ever-changing world.
• A child-centered approach to education that
focuses on creating real-life educational
situations that appeal to the interest of the
child.
• Important name: John Dewey
 2. Humanism
• It means man-centered.
• In terms of education it is an
extension of progressivism’s
child-centered approach to
educational practice.
• Basic principles have a great deal
of overlap with those of
progressivism.
 Summary of Humanism
• 1. the absence of harsh discipline and the
fear of failure.
• 2. schools should be happy places.
• 3. students want to learn and should have
freedom in the learning processes.
• 4. the emotional and mental health of
students is more important than subject
matter.
• 5. the aim of education is to
develop the individual – to help
him become his true self.
• -- it is not difficult to see that
these principles add up to a
philosophy that centers on human
needs rather than academics or
subject matter.
 3. Perennialism
• The key concept in this name is perennial.
• --perennial things do not change, they are
permanent
• Thus perennialism centers upon the absolute and
unchangeable.
• A total reaction against progressivism –in that it
moves the subject matter back onto the center of
the educational stage, while it downplays meeting
the needs of the child.
• The curriculum of eternal truths is most important
and that is what the child really needs.
• Important names: Robert Maynard
Hutchines and Mortimer Adler
• Philosophically, perennialism is
rooted in neo-scholasticism, which
views man as a rational animal.
 Essentialism
• Concerned with the educational essentials
• --essentials or the basics are the three R’s and
established facts
 Group work
• Discuss the Pragmatists views on
education in general.
• See how it affects his perception
of the following:
• 1. the teacher
• 2. the student
• 3. the curriculum
• 4. his methodology
 Discussion question
• What criticisms if any can you level
against pragmatism?
• John Dewey, in his book “How We
Think”, 1910, discusses the process of
reflective thinking as having five steps.
Identify and explain them.
 EXISTENTIALISM
(Existence precedes essence)

• Class discovery by group

investigation