BIONIC EYE

The Human Eye

• Human vision is a
complex physical
process of visualizing
something that involves
simultaneous interaction
of the eyes and the brain
through a network of
neurons, receptors, and
other specialized cells.
Structure and function of the Eye
Light enters the eye
through the
transparent cornea,
passing through the
pupil at the center
of the iris.

The lens adjusts to

focus the light on
the retina, where it
appears upside
down and
backward.

Receptor cells on
the retina send
information via the
optic nerve to the
visual cortex.
The eyeball consists of three main components:

The tunics, which are three layers that make up the wall of the eyeball
The optical components, also known as the refractile media components,
which admit and focus light
The neural components, which consist of the retina and the optic nerve. The
retina is also part of the inner tunic

Tunica fibrosa refers to the outer fibrous layer of the eye. This includes the
sclera and the cornea, which are continuous with one another.

Sclera: is the white part of the eye, and covers most of the eye surface. It is
made up of a dense tissue which has a rich supply of blood vessels and
nerves, and provides attachment for the external muscles of the eye. The
sclera tends to have a slight blue tinge during childhood and can appear
yellow in the elderly due to the accumulation of a pigment associated with
age-related wear and tear in the tissue.

Cornea:  allows light to enter the eye, and can be thought of as being part of
the modified sclera.
Tunica vasculosa:refers to the middle vascular layer. This is also
called the uvea. The uvea is made up of the choroid, ciliary body, and
iris.

Ciliary body forms a muscular ring around the lens. It secrets a fluid
called the aqueous humour, and supports the iris and lens. The ciliary
muscle, which is a smooth muscle responsible for lens accomodation
is contained within the ciliary body. Contraction of the ciliary muscle
enables the lens to focus light onto the retina by changing its shape.

Iris: is an adjustable thin muscle controlling pupil diameter. It consists of

two layers – one that blocks stray light from reaching the retina, and
another containing cells called chromatophores which contain a
substance called melanin which gives the iris a black or brown colour.

When there is scarce melanin, light reflects from the epithelium of the
posterior pigment, giving the iris a blue, green, or grey colour.
 Tunica interna refers to the innermost layer which is made up
of the neural components – the retina and optic nerve
Neural components of the eye
Retina is a thin transparent membrane attached at two points – the optic disc,
where the optic nerve leaves the rear of the eye, and the ora serrata, which is
the junction between the retina and the ciliary body.
Since the retina normally attaches to and depends on the choroid for oxygen,
nutrition and waste removal, prolonged detachment of the retina from the
choroid can lead to blindness.

Macula lutea
A patch of cells about 3mm in diameter can be found in the retina, known as
the macula lutea. In the centre of this patch is a small pit called the fovea
centralis, which produces finely detailed images.

The optic disc is found close to the macula lutea, and is the point on which
nerve fibres from all regions of the retina converge on. These nerve fibres then
exit the eye to form the optic nerve, so that the neural retina is continuous with
the central nervous system through the optic nerve.
Neural retina contains light-sensitive receptors and complex
neural networks, and the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). It
consists largely of photoreceptor cells called retinal rods and
cones. Visual information encoded by the rod and cones is
sent to the brain via impulses conveyed along the optic nerve.

Pupil which looks black because of the heavily pigmented

back of the eye, changes size to control and regulate the
amount of light passing through the lens to reach the retina.

Chambers of the eye:

Anterior chamber: space between the cornea and iris
Posterior chamber: space between the iris and the lens
Vitreous chamber: space between the lens and retina
Accessory structures
Conjunctiva refers to the lining of the eye. It helps lubricate the eye by secreting
mucous and tears, and serves as a protective barrier again microbes.
Eyelid provides the eye with protection. The skin of the eyelids is loose and elastic,
allowing for movement.
Lacrimal glands are the sites of tear production. Tears function to keep the
conjunctiva and corneal epithelium moist, and wash away foreign material from the
eye.
Extraocular muscles (muscles outside the eye) allow the eye to move within its orbit.
Six of these eyeball muscles attach to each eye. The actions of these muscles of both
eyes are coordinated to enable the eyes to move in parallel, a phenomenon known as
conjugate gaze.
Photosensitive cells
called rods and cones in
the retina convert incident
light energy into signals
that are carried to the
brain by the optic nerve.

In the middle of the retina

is a small dimple called
the fovea or fovea
centralis. It is the center of
the eye's sharpest vision
and the location of most
color perception.
When light falls on the retina, it creates a photochemical reaction
in the rods and cones at the back of the retina. The reactions then
continue to the bipolar cells, the ganglion cells, and eventually to
the optic nerve.
Retina
120 million rods and 5
million cones
A thin layer (about 0.5 to
0.1mm thick) of light receptor
cells covers the inner surface
of the choroid.

The focused beam of light is

absorbed and initiates
electrochemical reaction in
this pinkish multilayered
structure..

Rods process low level light

but do not process color

Cones process color

The Retina
The Eye with Retina
Vision:Light
The amount of light entering the eye is controlled by the iris.
Light enters through the pupil in the centre of the iris.

The size of the pupil is adjusted by variable contractions of the

iris muscles to control the amount of light entering.
The pupil becomes smaller when the circular iris muscle
contracts and shortens in response to bright light, so as to
decrease the amount of light entering the eye.
Under dim conditions, the radial iris muscle shortens, increasing
the size of the pupil.

Light rays are divergent (spreading outward), and must be bent

inward to be focused back into a point, known as the focal point,
on the retina which is light-sensitive, in order to produce an
accurate image of the light source.
Cornea and lens
The cornea and the lens are the eye’s most important
refractive structures.

Light first passes through the cornea, which has a

curved surface. The cornea contributes the most to
the eye’s total refractive ability.

Rays from light sources more than about 6 metres

away are considered to be parallel by the time they
reach the eye, while light rays from closer objects are
still diverging when they reach the eye.
.
Phototransduction
Vision occurs through the process of phototransduction. which is the
conversion of light stimuli into neural (brain) signals by the retinal cells.

The cells that perform this function are known as photoreceptors (also
called rod and cone cells) and consist of three parts:

Outer segment, which is closest to the exterior of the eye and detects the
light contains over a billion light-sensitive molecules.

Inner segment, which is in the middle and contains the components

necessary for the cell’s basic functions to survive

Synaptic terminal, which is closest to the interior of the eye. It transmits

the signal, which is generated in the photoreceptor, to the bipolar cells
upon light stimulation.
. Photopigments are substances that undergo chemical alterations when
activated by light. They are made up of two components, called opsin
and retinene. Retinen is the light-absorbing part of the photopigment.
Photopigments
There are four types of photopigments, one in the rods and
one in each of three types of cones. Each type of
photopigment absorbs a different wavelength of light.

The pigment in the rods is called rhodopsin. Rhodopsin

absorbs all visible wavelengths, so that rods provide vision
only in shades of grey by detecting different intensities rather
than colours.

The three types of cones – red, green and blue, can respond
selectively to various wavelengths of light, giving rise to
colour vision.
In the dark
Sodium (Na+) channels can be found on the photoreceptors. When cGMP is
bound to the Na+ channels, the channels remain open. In the absence of
light, the concentration of cGMP is high. Therefore, the Na+ channels are
opened in the absence of light stimulation. This results in a Na+ leak into the
photoreceptors, which changes the voltage of the cells, making it positive.

This change in voltage spreads to voltage-activated calcium (Ca2+)

channels, which then open. This entry of Ca2+ triggers the release of
neurotransmitter from the synaptic terminal while in the dark.

When exposed to light

When exposed to light, the concentration of cGMP is decreased through a
series of biochemical steps triggered by photopigment activation. The
reduction in cGMP causes the Na+ channels to close, stopping the
Na+ leak, which leads to the voltage of the photoreceptors becoming more
negative. This closes the voltage activated Ca2+ channels and reduces the
neurotransmitter release.
The brighter the light, the greater the response and therefore the greater
reduction in neurotransmitter release.
The retina signals the brain about light stimulation through an inhibitory response
which involves a series of physiological reactions. Action potentials originate in the
ganglion cells that carry the visual stimuli to the brain. The events which occur in the
photoreceptor in response to light initiate an action potential in the visual pathway
and this process is called Phototransduction
• The human eye is equipped with a variety of optical elements including the
cornea, iris, pupil, a variable-focus lens, and the retina.
• When an object is observed, it is first focused through the cornea and lens onto
the retina, a multilayered membrane that contains millions of light-sensitive
cells that detect the image and translate it into a series of electrical signals.
• These image capturing receptors of the retina are termed rods and cones, and
are connected with the fibers of the optic nerve bundle through a series of
specialized cells that coordinate the transmission of the electrical signals to the
brain.
• In the brain, the optic nerves from both eyes join at the optic chiasma where
information from their retinas is correlated.
• The visual information is then processed through several steps, eventually
arriving at the visual cortex, which is located on the lower rear section of each
half of the cerebrum.
 Regions of Implantation

• Retina
• Optic Nerve
• Lateral geniculate body
• Visual Cortex
• A particularly specialized component of the eye is the fovea centralis,
which is located on the optical axis of the eye in an area near the center of
the retina.
• This area exclusively contains high-density tightly packed cone cells and is
the area of sharpest vision.
• The density level of cone cells decreases outside of the fovea centralis
and the ratio of rod cells to cone cells gradually increases.
• At the periphery of the retina, the total number of both types of light
receptors decreases substantially, causing a dramatic loss of visual
sensitivity at the retinal borders.
• This is offset, however, by the fact that humans constantly scan objects in
their field of view, usually resulting in a perceived image that is uniformly
sharp
 BLINDNESS
 Blindness means loss of vision.
 A completely blind individual is unable to see
anything even with the use of eye glasses , Contact
lenses , medicine or surgery.
 8o% of blindness occurs in people over 50Years old.
 Common causes :- macular degeneration, Traumatic
injuries , glaucoma etc.
 Less common causes :- vit-A deficiency , Retinitis
pigmentosa , retinopathy of prematurity etc.
 The Problem with eye / vision
• The Photoreceptor
– Photoreceptors signal the presence of light in the
visual field.
– Rods: Low light, no color detection.
– Cones: Light required, three types of cones produce
the perception of color when combined.
 Problem:Degeneration
• Retinitis Pigmentosa (RP)
– Inherited
– Photoreceptors dying from the periphery
– As early as 20 years old
• Age-related Macular Degeneration (AMD)
– Photoreceptors dying from the center out
– Age 65+
– Most common
• No cure for either forms of blindness
 Retinitis Pigmentosa
• Hereditary Genetic Disease
• Peripheral Rods degenerate
• Gradually progresses towards center of eye
• Tunnel vision results
Opthalmoscope View

NORMAL EYE DEFECTIVE EYE

 Macular Degeneration
• Genetically Related
• Cones in Macula region degenerate
• Loss or damage of central vision
• Peripheral Retina spared
• Common among old people

NORMAL EYE DEFECTIVE EYE

 The Bionic Eye
• It is an artificial eye which provide visual sensations to the
brain.
• Bionic eye refers to bioelectronic eye.
• The electronic device which replaces functionality of a part
or whole of the eye.
• It consist of electronic systems having image sensors,
microprocessors, receivers, radio transmitters and retinal
chips. Technology provided by this help the blind people to
get vision again.
• Bionic Eye Inventor Inspired by Grandmother to Help the
Blind. Dr. Mark Humayun was going to be a doctor all
along, but when a family member lost her eyesight, he
soon began his journey as an innovator.
• It consist of a computer chip which is kept in the
back of effected person eye and linked with a mini
video camera built into glasses that they wear.

• Then an image captured by the camera are focused

to the chip which converts it into electronic signal
that brain can interpret.
•
• The images produced by Bionic eye were not be too
much perfect but they could be clear enough to
recognize.

• The implant bypasses the diseased cells in the retina

and go through the remaining possible cells.
 Image capture by
Digital camera

Light at each pixel in their sensor arrays is converted to electrical signals

Brightness is reported

Retinal implant containing an array of stimulating electrodes placed on retina

Stimulation of nerve cells

Interpretation of signals by the nerve cells

Signal sent to the brain

TECHNOLOGIES APPLIED IN BIONIC EYE

• MIT – HARVARD DEVICE

• ASR(ARTIFICIAL SILICON
RETINA)
• MARC
• ARGUS II
• HOLOGRAPHIC TECHNOLOGY
• ALPHA IMS
 Approaches Towards Retinal Prosthetic
Implantation
• Epiretinal Approach involves
a semiconductor based
device positioned on the
surface of the retina to try to
simulate the remaining
overlying cells of the retina.

• Subretinal Approach involves

implanting the ASR chip

behind the retina to
simulate the remaining
viable cells.
 MIT-Harvard device
Features
• Epi-Retinal Approach
• Microelectrode array replaces damaged photoreceptors
• Power source – Laser(820nm wavelength)
• Image Acquisition - Using CCD Camera (Charged coupled
device) The CCD captures light and converts it to digital data
that is recorded by the camera.
• Patient spectacle holds the camera and power source

Site of Implant
The Whole Picture
 Implant Structure
• Layers
1- Photodiode Array
2- Polyimide strip
3- Stimulator chip

• Electrodes on other end

of Polyimide strip
 Working of the System
• CCD camera input – External light intensity
• CCD output amplitude-modulates laser source
• This hits photodiode array of implant
• This in turn powers stimulator chip (SC)
• SC drives current to electrodes facing retina
• This excites the ganglionic cells > axons > optic
nerve > visual cortex in occipital lobe of brain
• Brain helps in perceiving an image
Advantages
• Very Early in the visual pathway
• No Batteries implanted within body
• No complicated surgical procedure
• Power Requirement – ¼ of milliwatt

Disadvantages
• Axons b/w electrodes and ganglionic cells
• Other axons get excited – unwanted perception of
large blur
• Extra circuitry required for downstream electrical
input
 Artificial Retina Prosthesis using ASR
(Artificial Silicon Retina)
• Human Eye is similar to a
camera
• Macula provides the highest
resolution of the image which
we see.

• Macula is comprised of
multiple layers of cells which
process the initial analog”
light energy entering the eye
into “digital” electrochemical
impulses.

• Human eye has nearly

100 million photoreceptors.
 Working system
• ASR is a solid state biocompatible chip which contains an array
of photo receptors ,and is implanted to replace the
functionality of the defective photoreceptors .
• Current generated by the device in response to light
stimulation will alter the membrane potential of the overlying
neurons and thereby activate the visual system.
• Visual sensations or “phosphenes” can be evoked by electrical
stimulation of the different levels of the visual pathway.
• Phosphenes are evoked by the stimulation of the eyeball or the
visual cortex.
• Artificial vision created by the controlled electric stimulation of
the retina has color.
Enhancement of the image quality using
the ASR
 Disadvantages
• ASR is designed to interface and function with the retina that
has partial outer retinal degeneration.

• ASR can be applied only when the photoreceptor cellular

layer of the retina is damaged but the remaining cellular
layers are still functional.

• ASR can be effectively applied to RP and AMD.

• Conditions amenable to treatment with ASR’s include some

forms of long-term retinal detachment, Usher’s syndrome,
Cone- Rod Dystrophy.
 Sub-Retinal Approach
• The basic idea-”Alter the membrane potential”

• IMPLANT DESIGN
– Primitive devices
• Single photosensitive pixel(3mm in diameter)
– Neo devices
• The current micro photodiode array (MPA) is comprised of a
regular array of individual photodiode subunits, each
approximately 20×20-µm square and separated by 10-µm
channel stops (37). The resulting micro photodiode density is
approximately 1,100/m2.
 IMPLANT features
• The size has decreased from 250um to 50um
• No external power supply
• 500nm to 1100nm wavelength response
Multiple Unit Artificial Retina Chipset
(MARC)
Platinum on Silicone Rubber Electrode Array
Photograph of MARC Chip
MARC Hermetic Sealing and Positioning
 Advantages
• Compact Size – 6x6 mm
• Diagnostic Capability
• Reduction of stress upon retina

Disadvantages
• Costly
• If a single part of the chip is damaged the total
technique will be meaningless.
 ARGUS II
 Test I: letter identification
 Test II: letter size reduction
• Uses external  Test III: word recognition
components to “amplify”
what it sees, has a
camera.
• The Argus II epiretinal
prosthesis system allows
letter and word reading
and long-term function
in patients with
profound vision loss.
 Holographic Technology
 Computer-generated holography,
could be used in conjunction with a
technique called optogenetics, which
uses gene therapy to deliver light-
sensitive proteins to damaged retinal
nerve cells.

 “The basic idea of optogenetics is to

take a light-sensitive protein from
another organism, typically from
algae or bacteria, and insert it into a
target cell, and that photosensitizes
the cell,”
 Alpha IMS

– Uses implants in
brain to bypass
retina and hook into
optical nerve.
 The Alpha IMS
• Extremely new technology.
• No external components besides the battery.
• No camera is used, unlike the Argus II.
– 3x3m microchip in retina captures a visual resolution of 1500
pixels.
– Microchip bypasses damaged photoreceptors, uses natural eye to
“see”
– Placement of microchip allows the middle layer of the retina to
do its processing of input.
– Allows movement of eye to look around, rather than the entire
head.
• Allows users to see black and white details.
– The brighter the object, the more it shows up.
– Cars and water, when reflected upon by the sun, was the most
visible to those participating.