IPv6: motivation

 initial motivation: 32-bit address space would be

completely allocated.
 additional motivation:
 header format helps speed processing/forwarding
 header changes to facilitate QoS

IPv6 datagram format:

 fixed-length 40 byte header
 no fragmentation allowed

Network Layer 4-1

IPv6 datagram format
priority: identify priority among datagrams in flow
flow Label: identify datagrams in same “ flow.”
(concept of“ flow” not well defined).
next header: identify upper layer protocol for data
ver pri flow label
payload len next hdr hop limit
source address
(128 bits)
destination address
(128 bits)

data

32 bits
Network Layer 4-2
Other changes from IPv4
 checksum: removed entirely to reduce processing
time at each hop
 options: no options (available as upper-layer,
next-header protocol at router)
 ICMPv6: new version of ICMP
 additional message types, e.g. “ Packet Too Big”
 multicast group management functions
 no fragmentation/reassembly

Network Layer 4-3

Transition from IPv4 to IPv6
 not all routers can be upgraded simultaneously
 no “ flag days”
 how will network operate with mixed IPv4 and IPv6
routers?
 tunneling: IPv6 datagram carried as payload in IPv4
datagram among IPv4 routers (“packet within a packet”)

IPv4 header fields IPv6 header fields

IPv4 payload
IPv4 source, dest addr IPv6 source dest addr
UDP/TCP payload

IPv6 datagram
IPv4 datagram
Network Layer 4-4
Tunneling
A B IPv4 tunnel E F
connecting IPv6 routers
logical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv6 IPv6

A B C D E F
physical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv4 IPv4 IPv6 IPv6

Network Layer 4-5

Tunneling
A B IPv4 tunnel E F
connecting IPv6 routers
logical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv6 IPv6

A B C D E F
physical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv4 IPv4 IPv6 IPv6

flow: X src:B src:B flow: X

src: A dest: E src: A
dest: F
dest: E
dest: F
Flow: X Flow: X
Src: A Src: A
data Dest: F Dest: F data

data data

A-to-B: E-to-F:
IPv6 B-to-C: B-to-C: IPv6
IPv6 inside IPv6 inside
IPv4 IPv4 Network Layer 4-6
IPv6: adoption
 Google1: ~ 30% of clients access services via IPv6
 NIST: 1/3 of all US government domains are IPv6 capable

1
https://www.google.com/intl/en/ipv6/statistics.html
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and  link state
datagram networks  distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router  hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
  RIP
datagram format
  OSPF
IPv4 addressing
  BGP
ICMP
 IPv6 4.7 broadcast and multicast
routing

Network Layer 4-8

Interplay between routing, forwarding
routing algorithm determines
routing algorithm
end-end-path through network
forwarding table determines
local forwarding table
dest address
local forwarding at this router
output
address-range 1 3 link
address-range 2 2
address-range 3 2
address-range 4 1

IP destination address in
arriving packet’s header
1
3 2

Network Layer 4-9

Graph abstraction
5
3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
x 1
y
graph: G = (N,E)

N = set of routers = { u, v, w, x, y, z }

E = set of links ={ (u,v), (u,x), (v,x), (v,w),(u,w), (x,w), (x,y), (w,y), (w,z), (y,z) }

Network Layer 4-10

Graph abstraction: costs
5
c(x,x’) = cost of link (x,x’)
3 e.g., c(w,z) = 5
v w 5
2
u cost could always be 1, or
2
3
1 z inversely related to bandwidth,
1 2 or inversely related to
x 1
y
congestion

cost of path (x1, x2, x3,…, xp) = c(x1,x2) + c(x2,x3) + … + c(xp-1,xp)

key question: what is the least-cost path between u and z ?

routing algorithm: algorithm that finds that least cost path

Network Layer 4-11

Routing algorithm classification
Q: global or decentralized Q: static or dynamic?
information?
static:
global:  routes change slowly over
 all routers have complete
topology, link cost info
time
 “ link state” algorithms dynamic:
 routes change more
decentralized:
 router knows physically- quickly
connected neighbors, link costs  periodic update
to neighbors  in response to link cost
 iterative process of computation, changes
exchange of info with neighbors
 “ distance vector” algorithms

Network Layer 4-12

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and  link state
datagram networks  distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router  hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
  RIP
datagram format
  OSPF
IPv4 addressing
  BGP
ICMP
 IPv6 4.7 broadcast and multicast
routing

Network Layer 4-13

A Link-State Routing Algorithm
Dijkstra’s algorithm notation:
 net topology, link costs  c(x,y): link cost from
known to all nodes node x to y; = ∞ if not
 accomplished via “ link direct neighbors
state broadcast”  D(v): current value of
 all nodes have same info cost of path from source to
 computes least cost paths dest. v
from one node (‘source” )  p(v): predecessor node
to all other nodes along path from source to
 gives forwarding table for v
that node  N': set of nodes whose
 iterative: after k iterations, least cost path definitively
know least cost path to k known
dest.’s
Network Layer 4-14
Dijsktra’s Algorithm
1 Initialization:
2 N' = {u}
3 for all nodes v
4 if v adjacent to u
5 then D(v) = c(u,v)
6 else D(v) = ∞
7
8 Loop
9 find w not in N' such that D(w) is a minimum
10 add w to N'
11 update D(v) for all v adjacent to w and not in N' :
12 D(v) = min( D(v), D(w) + c(w,v) )
13 /* new cost to v is either old cost to v or known
14 shortest path cost to w plus cost from w to v */
15 until all nodes in N'

Network Layer 4-15

Dijkstra’s algorithm: example
D(v) D(w) D(x) D(y) D(z)
Step N' p(v) p(w) p(x) p(y) p(z)
0 u 7,u 3,u 5,u ∞ ∞
1 uw 6,w 5,u 11,w ∞
2 uwx 6,w 11,w 14,x
3 uwxv 10,v 14,x
4 uwxvy 12,y
5 uwxvyz x
9

notes: 5 7
4
 construct shortest path tree by
tracing predecessor nodes 8
 ties can exist (can be broken u
3 w y z
arbitrarily) 2
3
7 4
v
Network Layer 4-16
 Dijkstra’s algorithm: another example
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy 2,u 3,y 4,y
3 uxyv 3,y 4,y
4 uxyvw 4,y
5 uxyvwz

v 3 w
2 5
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
x 1
y

Network Layer 4-17

Dijkstra’s algorithm: example (2)
resulting shortest-path tree from u:

v w
u z
x y

resulting forwarding table in u:

destination link
v (u,v)
x (u,x)
y (u,x)
w (u,x)
z (u,x)
Network Layer 4-18
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and  link state
datagram networks  distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router  hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
  RIP
datagram format
  OSPF
IPv4 addressing
  BGP
ICMP
 IPv6 4.7 broadcast and multicast
routing

Network Layer 4-19

Distance vector algorithm
Bellman-Ford equation (dynamic programming)

let
dx(y) := cost of least-cost path from x to y
then
dx(y) = min
v {c(x,v) + dv(y) }
cost from neighbor v to destination y
cost to neighbor v

min taken over all neighbors v of x

Network Layer 4-20
Bellman-Ford example
5
3
clearly, dv(z) = 5, dx(z) = 3, dw(z) = 3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z B-F equation says:
3
1 2 du(z) = min { c(u,v) + dv(z),
x 1
y
c(u,x) + dx(z),
c(u,w) + dw(z) }
= min {2 + 5,
1 + 3,
5 + 3} = 4
node achieving minimum is next
hop in shortest path, used in forwarding table
Network Layer 4-21
Distance vector algorithm
 Dx(y) = estimate of least cost from x to y
 x maintains distance vector Dx = [Dx(y): y є N ]
 node x:
 knows cost to each neighbor v: c(x,v)
 maintains its neighbors’ distance vectors. For
each neighbor v, x maintains
Dv = [Dv(y): y є N ]

Network Layer 4-22

Distance vector algorithm
key idea:
 from time-to-time, each node sends its own
distance vector estimate to neighbors
 when x receives new DV estimate from neighbor,
it updates its own DV using B-F equation:
Dx(y) ← minv{c(x,v) + Dv(y)} for each node y ∊ N

 under minor, natural conditions, the estimate Dx(y)

converge to the actual least cost dx(y)

Network Layer 4-23

Distance vector algorithm
iterative, asynchronous: each node:
each local iteration caused
by:
 local link cost change wait for (change in local link
cost or msg from neighbor)
 DV update message from
neighbor
distributed: recompute estimates
 each node notifies
neighbors only when its
DV changes if DV to any dest has
 neighbors then notify their changed, notify neighbors
neighbors if necessary

Network Layer 4-24

 Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) +
Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)}
= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2 Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)}
= min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
node x cost to cost to
table x y z x y z
x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3

from
y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1
from

z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0

node y cost to
table x y z y
2 1
x ∞ ∞ ∞
x z
from

y 2 0 1 7
z ∞∞ ∞

node z cost to
table x y z
x ∞∞ ∞
from

y ∞∞ ∞
z 7 1 0
time
Network Layer 4-25
 Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) +
Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)}
= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2 Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)}
= min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
node x cost to cost to cost to
table x y z x y z x y z
x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 x 0 2 3

from
y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1
from

y 2 0 1

from
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0
node y cost to cost to cost to
table x y z x y z x y z y
2 1
x ∞ ∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 x z
from

y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1 7
from

y 2 0 1

from
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0

node z cost to cost to cost to

table x y z x y z x y z

x ∞∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3
from

from

y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1
from

y ∞∞ ∞
z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0 z 3 1 0
time
Network Layer 4-26
 Distance vector: link cost changes
link cost changes: 1
 node detects local link cost change 4
y
1
 updates routing info, recalculates x z
distance vector 50
 if DV changes, notify neighbors

“ good t0 : y detects link-cost change, updates its DV, informs its

news neighbors.
travels t1 : z receives update from y, updates its table, computes new
fast” least cost to x , sends its neighbors its DV.

t2 : y receives z’s update, updates its distance table. y’s least costs
do not change, so y does not send a message to z.

Network Layer 4-27

Distance vector: link cost changes
link cost changes: 60
 node detects local link cost change 4
y
1
 bad news travels slow - “ count to x z
infinity” problem! 50
 44 iterations before algorithm
stabilizes: see text
poisoned reverse:
 If Z routes through Y to get to X :
 Z tells Y its (Z’s) distance to X is infinite (so Y won’t route to X via Z)
 will this completely solve count to infinity problem?

Network Layer 4-28

Comparison of LS and DV algorithms
message complexity robustness: what happens if
 LS: with n nodes, E links, O(nE) router malfunctions?
msgs sent LS:
 DV: exchange between neighbors  node can advertise incorrect
only link cost
 convergence time varies  each node computes only its
own table
speed of convergence DV:
 LS: O(n2) algorithm requires
O(nE) msgs  DV node can advertise
incorrect path cost
 may have oscillations
 each node’s table used by
 DV: convergence time varies others
 may be routing loops • error propagate thru
 count-to-infinity problem network

Network Layer 4-29

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and  link state
datagram networks  distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router  hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
  RIP
datagram format
  OSPF
IPv4 addressing
  BGP
ICMP
 IPv6 4.7 broadcast and multicast
routing

Network Layer 4-30

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and  link state
datagram networks  distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router  hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
  RIP
datagram format
  OSPF
IPv4 addressing
  BGP
ICMP
 IPv6 4.7 broadcast and multicast
routing

Network Layer 4-31

Intra-AS Routing
 also known as interior gateway protocols (IGP)
 most common intra-AS routing protocols:
 RIP: Routing Information Protocol
 OSPF: Open Shortest Path First
 IGRP: Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
(Cisco proprietary)

Network Layer 4-32

 RIP ( Routing Information Protocol)
 included in BSD-UNIX distribution in 1982
 distance vector algorithm
 distance metric: # hops (max = 15 hops), each link has cost 1
 DVs exchanged with neighbors every 30 sec in response message (aka advertisement)
 each advertisement: list of up to 25 destination subnets (in IP addressing sense)

from router A to destination subnets:

u v subnet hops
w u 1
A B
v 2
w 2
x x 3
z C D y 3
y z 2
Network Layer 4-33
RIP: example

z
w x y
A D B

C
routing table in router D
destination subnet next router # hops to dest
w A 2
y B 2
z B 7
x -- 1
…. …. ....
Network Layer 4-34
RIP: example
A-to-D advertisement
dest next hops
w - 1
x - 1
z C 4
…. … ... z
w x y
A D B

C
routing table in router D
destination subnet next router # hops to dest
w A 2
y B 2
A 5
z B 7
x -- 1
…. …. ....
Network Layer 4-35
RIP: link failure, recovery
if no advertisement heard after 180 sec -->
neighbor/link declared dead
 routes via neighbor invalidated
 new advertisements sent to neighbors
 neighbors in turn send out new advertisements (if tables
changed)
 link failure info quickly (?) propagates to entire net
 poison reverse used to prevent ping-pong loops (infinite
distance = 16 hops)

Network Layer 4-36

RIP table processing
 RIP routing tables managed by application-level
process called route-d (daemon)
 advertisements sent in UDP packets, periodically
repeated
routed routed

transport transprt
(UDP) (UDP)
network forwarding forwarding network
(IP) table table (IP)
link link
physical physical

Network Layer 4-37

OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
 “ open” : publicly available
 uses link state algorithm
 LS packet dissemination
 topology map at each node
 route computation using Dijkstra’s algorithm
 OSPF advertisement carries one entry per neighbor
 advertisements flooded to entire AS
 carried in OSPF messages directly over IP (rather than TCP
or UDP
 IS-IS routing protocol: nearly identical to OSPF

Network Layer 4-38

OSPF “ advanced” features (not in RIP)
 security: all OSPF messages authenticated (to prevent
malicious intrusion)
 multiple same-cost paths allowed (only one path in
RIP)
 for each link, multiple cost metrics for different TOS
(e.g., satellite link cost set “ low” for best effort ToS;
high for real time ToS)
 integrated uni- and multicast support:
 Multicast OSPF (MOSPF) uses same topology
data base as OSPF
 hierarchical OSPF in large domains.

Network Layer 4-39

Hierarchical OSPF
boundary router
backbone router

backbone
area
border
routers

area 3

internal
routers
area 1
area 2

Network Layer 4-40

Hierarchical OSPF
 two-level hierarchy: local area, backbone.
 link-state advertisements only in area
 each nodes has detailed area topology; only know
direction (shortest path) to nets in other areas.
 area border routers: “ summarize” distances to nets
in own area, advertise to other Area Border routers.
 backbone routers: run OSPF routing limited to
backbone.
 boundary routers: connect to other AS’s.

Network Layer 4-41