Chapter Five

Analysis and Presentation of Data

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 EDITING

• The first step in data processing is to edit the raw data.

• It involves a careful scrutiny of the completed questionnaires. One
edits to assure that the data are:
1. Accurate
2. Concise with other information / facts gathered
3. Uniformly entered
4. As complete as possible
5. Arrange to facilitate coding and tabulation.
The editing can be done at two levels; on the field where the data is
collected or in the office. 2
 Contd…
CODING:
• Coding refers to the process of assigning numerical or other symbols to
answer so that responses can be put into a limited number of categories
or classes. By this several answers are reduced to a few categories.
CLASSIFICATION:
• Classification is the process of arranging data in groups or classes on the
basis of common characteristics. Classification can be in the form of either
attribute (literacy, sex, honesty etc) or class intervals (like income,
population, age, weight etc).
TABULATION:
• Tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying in the
compact form (in the form of statistical tables) for further analysis. It is
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an orderly arrangement of data in columns and rows.
 Contd…
• MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY:
• The Mean: It is the arithmetic average; it involves all observations and is
affected by extreme cases.
• The Medium: It is the mid point / middle value. It does not involve all
observations.
• The Mode: The value that occurs most often is referred to as the modal
value.
• MEASURES OF DISPERSION:
• Range: The difference between the smallest and the largest value of a
frequency distribution is known as the range of the distribution.
• Deviation scores: A method of calculating how far way any observation
is from the mean is to calculate the individual deviation
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 Contd…

• Average deviation: taking the average of individual

deviations.
AD = Σ (x- x) / n
Since Σ ( x – x) is always zero AD is also zero.
• Mean Absolute Deviation: MAD = Σ | x – x | / n
• Mean Square Deviation: MSD = ν = Σ ( x – x ) 2 / n
• Standard Deviation = √ MSD = √ ∑ ( x – x ) 2 / n
• Variance
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 Contd…
Data analysis:
• Tabulation: It refers to the orderly arrangement of data in a table or other summary
format. At the very beginning, we have to develop a master sheet, and transform all
information from each questionnaire on this master sheet. Counting the number of responses
to a question and putting them in a frequency distribution is tabulation.
Ex: Do you have TV? a. Yes b. No
Possession of TV:
RESPONSES FREQUENCY
YES 27
NO 93
TOTAL 100

• Percentage: For simplicity frequency distribution has to be followed by percentages.

• Cross – tabulation: a technique of organizing data by group category or classes. 6
 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
• This requires choosing the appropriate statistical techniques. The
choice of the method of statistical analysis depends on:
1. The type of questions to be asked: i.e., is it to measure central
tendency, relationship between the variables, or category differences.
2. The number of variables:
• Univariate data analysis: When a researcher generalizes from a sample about
one variable
• Bivariate data analysis: When the desire is to explain the relationship between
two variables at a time
• Multivariate data analysis: Is the simultaneous investigation of more than two
variables.
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 Contd…
3. Scale measurement of data: There are four scale measurements of data as follows:
• Nominal Data: (scale) No mathematical operations can be conducted on this data Ex:
about sex, religion, the chest number’s worn by the athletes or the numbers on the t-shirts
of the football players meant for their identification.
• Ordinal Data: (scale) Data that permits a ranking by order of magnitude but it is not
possible to determine how much one item is compared with another. ex: one might rank
from 1 to 5 for five towns in which they might prefer to work, the position of a athlete at the
end of a race.
• Interval Data: (scale) / ratio data – provides detailed information but not much of
mathematical operations as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division can be worked
out Ex: time of finishing a 100 meters race by the athletes in a competition etc.
• Ratio Data: (scale) Provides detailed information and all the mathematical operations can
be conducted on this type of data. Ex: income, age, weight, height, price, output etc.
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 Contd…
• PARAMETRIC Vs NON-PARAMETRIC:
Note:
• Parametric analysis based on interval data and
• Nonparametric analysis is based on nominal or ordinal data
• Parametric statistics: Statistical procedures that use interval scales or
ratio scale and assume population or sampling distribution is normal.
• Non-parametric statistics: Statistical procedures that use nominal or
ordinal data and make no assumptions about the distribution of the
population or sampling distribution.
Examples of selecting the appropriate statistical methods:
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 Hypothesis Testing procedure:
Setting of the hypothesis :
• The Null Hypothesis: a statement about a status-quo that asserts any change from
what has been thought to be true will be entirely due to random error.
• The alternative hypothesis: is a statement indicating the opposite of null hypothesis.
• The purpose of hypothesis testing is to determine which one of these two hypotheses is
correct.
• Test statistic: appropriate statistical tool in the form of –
1. Z-test,
2. t-test,
3. 2-test or
4. ANOVA is conducted.
• Computation: based on the relevant test statistic the values obtained after editing is
introduced into the relevant formula.
• Decision: In this step based on the results obtained after computation acceptance or
rejection of the null hypothesis is done.
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The Tools of Research

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 6 General tools of Research

1. The Library and its resources

2. The Computer and its Software tools
3. Techniques of measurements as tool
4. Statistics as a tool of research
5. The human mind as a tool of research
6. Language as a tool of research

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 The library and its resources
•  A library (from French "librairie"; Latin "liber" for book) is an
organized collection of information resources made accessible to a
defined community for reference or borrowing. It provides physical or
digital access to material
• Dramatically changed from old to new. Conventional library to digital/e-
library, card, card stacks, catalogue all manual, journals, books,
bookshelves but today……..
• How to access information quickly and efficiently
• Indexes and abstracts- CDs, DVD, online databases etc.
• Browsing the library shelves (virtual mode i.e. e-library)
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 2. The Computer and its
Software
• Computers can not be human brains but information
providers/processors. They calculate, compare, search,
retrieve, sort, organize data/information efficiently
• Online / off line software via Internet Off line or online
Software are now extensively used in planning the study,
literature review, data gathering, Analyzing interpretation data
and finally reporting the results.
• Internet to facilitate communication
• Email, SMS to collect opinion 14

• Word processors, SPSS, PSPP, Mendeley…

 World Wide Web Research Tools

• Search Engines:
• Google
• Yahoo
• MSN
• Bing

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• Reference and databases
• Libraryspot.com Reference and Library site.
• Free Internet Encyclopedia
• Scopus
• ScienceDirect
• Google Scholar
• ……

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Databases, Indexes

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 3. Techniques of Measurements as a Tool of Research

• Measurement means scale, gauges, thermometers, rulers but

in research the meaning will be somewhat different
• Measurement means limiting the data (When we measure
something we set a limit like 12 inch=a foot, 5280 feet=a mile
etc.) of any phenomenon-- substantial or unsubstantial--
(phenomenon) OR
• Measurement is the assignment of numbers or Quantitative
values to objects.
• A researcher needs good measures for both independent and
dependent variables. 18
 Two Basic Processes of Measurement
• Conceptualization  ( Theoretical )
Conceptualization is the process of taking a construct or
concept and refining it by giving it a conceptual or
theoretical definition
• Operationalization ( Practical)
Operationalisation is the process of taking a conceptual
definition and making it more precise by linking it to
one or more specific, concrete indicators or operational
definitions.
E.g. Gravity with Apple 19
 4. Statistics as tool of
Research
• All tools are more suitable for some purposes than for others. E.g.
Screwdriver—Designed Only for insert and remove screws. But we
can use it for some other purposes as well like punch holes, hit
somebody, paper weight etc.

• All researches don’t use or rarely use statistical tools like history,
musicology etc.

• Statistics is the study of the collection, organization, analysis, and

interpretation of data.
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Some well-known statistical tests and procedures are:

• Analysis of variance (ANOVA)

• Chi-squared test
• Correlation
• Factor analysis
• Mann–Whitney U
• Mean square weighted deviation (MSWD)
• Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient
• Regression analysis
• Spearman's rank correlation coefficient
• Student's t-test
• Time series analysis
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 IT tools for statistical Analysis

• MaxStat Lite version

• MaxStat Lite version is a easy to use for statistical analysis in
three easy steps within a single dialog box.
• MaxStat supports over 100 commonly used statistical tests
and
• it easy to interpret results and create high-quality graphs.
• Maxstat includes descriptive, hypothesis, linear and
nonlinear regression, correlation, multivariate analysis, and
time series.
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 5. Human mind as a tool of Research
• Statistics cannot necessarily draw logical conclusions. The human
brain/mind is undoubtedly the most important tool on researcher’s
workbench. Its functioning dwarfs all other gadgetry. Nothing equals its
powers of comprehension (understanding/command), integrative,
reasoning and insights (approaching).
• to help them make use of the human mind Human beings have developed
several strategies to better understand the unknown. Key among them are
1) Deductive logic,
2) Inductive reasoning,
3) The scientific method,
4) Critical thinking, and
5) Collaboration with others. 23
 Critical Thinking

• “You may be thinking! Easy topic! I make decisions every

day!‘
• Critical thinking is all about knowing yourself and your
values.
• You will learn how to make decisions after you have
objectively looked at your options.
• Quite simply, a big difference between a high school
education and an adult education is discovering how to use
your critical thinking skills.”
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 6. Language as a tool of research

• Students are expected to have a background in a language

like English and to develop a research tool. The language
requirement may be met by three/four semesters of college-level
foreign language courses or an equivalency acceptable to the
doctoral faculty.
The language helps in following or more:
• They reduce the world complexity
• They facilitate generalization and inference drawing in new situation
• They allow abstraction of the environment
• They enhance the power of thoughts
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 WRITING THE RESEARCH
REPORT
• COMPONENTS OF A RESEARCH REPORT:
• The research report contains several components or elements. In general these are three parts:
a. The preliminary pages (Prefatory items): Prefatory materials do not have a direct bearing on
the research report. They assist the reader in using the research report. These includes
• Letter of Approval
• The title page
• Acknowledgements
• Table of contents
• List of tables
• List of figures
• Abbreviations or glossary (technical words used in the report)
• Abstract or summary of the entire report
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 Abstract / (Executive
summary)
• It is a short summary. The size of the abstract varies. A Paragraph or
a full page. For the les interested reader they tell what is in the report. It
should exist following the list of figures on the separate page. Information
to be included in a summary is:
• Brief statement of the domain
• Brief statement of the problem
• Brief Objectives of the study(Normally General Objective)
• Brief Method and procedures of research data collection and analysis
• Major findings
• But recommendations are normally not included.

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 b. The body of the Research
Report
• This includes:
• Introduction
• Literature review
• Methodology- ( Sampling frame and sample, Sampling design, Research design, Data collection,
Data analysis, Limitations)
• Findings (Results and Discussions)
• Summary of Critical Analysis
• Conclusions and Recommendations
• The introduction
• About domain
• Background of the study
• The scope and limitations.
• The problem statement (Optional)
• Research Objectives (Optional) 28
 C. The Appended section
• This includes appendix and bibliography:
• Appendix: complex tables, statistical tests supporting documents,
copies of forms used (questionnaires) detailed description of
methodology, instructions to filed works and nay other evident that may
be important.
• Bibliography: There should be a bibliographic section if the study
makes heavy use of secondary material. For specific reference, use foot
notes and endnotes placed at the conclusions of each major section rather
than referring to the bibliography. It should be arranged alphabetically.
• There may be several bibliographic entry formats. But the following
points should be emphasized on the styles and formats in writing the
bibliography.
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End Of Chapter Five
Thank you!!

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