BIOL 340 Mammalian Physiology Lecture 11

The Heart
Midterm 2

Part 1
Functional Anatomy of the Heart
Chapter 18
The Cardiovascular System: The
Heart
Heart History
Aristotle (4th century B.C.):
• Heart as the most important organ of the body:
center of vitality; seat of intelligence, motion, and
sensation
• Other organs surrounding it (e.g., brain and lungs)
simply exist to cool the heart.
Galen (2nd century A.D.):
• The heart as the source of the body's innate heat
and as the organ most closely related to the soul
Harvey (17th century):
• Described the heart and its role in circulation
fairly accurately, but still ascribed it the role as
the most important organ with a role in emotion,
etc.
 Tetrapod Hearts: 4 Chambers, 2 Main Circuits
4 chambers
2 chambers 3 chambers 4-5 chambers
2 circuits
1 circuit 2 circuits 2 circuits
complete separation

FISHES AMPHIBIANS REPTILES (excl. BIRDS) BIRDS AND MAMMALS

Anatomical Directions and Planes
Location of the Heart
• Fist-sized, hollow, cone-shaped
• 250-350 g (< 1 lb)
• Within mediastinum (medial thoracic
cavity)
• Extends obliquely for ~ 5 in (12-14 cm)
from 2nd rib to 5th intercostal space
• Rests on diaphragm, between vertebral
column and sternum, flanked and partially
obscured by lungs
• 2/3 of mass on the left side, apex points
towards left hip
• Apical impulse can most easily be felt
between 5th and 6th rib (below left nipple),
where apex touches the chest wall
• Covered by pericardium
Coverings of the Heart
Pericardium: double-walled sac
• Fibrous pericardium (superficial part)
• Protective tough and dense connective
layer
• Anchors heart to surrounding structures
• Prevents overfilling
• Serous pericardium (inner two layers)
• Thin and slippery closed sac around
heart
• Outer (parietal) layer attaches to large
arteries and turns inward to form
visceral layer (epicardium)
• Pericardial cavity is filled with serous
fluid which lubricates membranes to
reduce friction caused by heart
contractions
Cardiac Muscle Bundles
The myocardium is composed mainly of
cardiac muscle
• Branching cardiac muscle cells are
tethered to one another by crisscrossing
connective tissue fibers
• Form spiral and circular bundles that link
all parts of the heart together
 Gross Anatomy of the Heart
Superior vena cava

• Heart has 4 chambers:

superior atria, inferior
ventricles
Auricle of left atrium
• Atria are the receiving
chambers
• Right atrium receives oxygen- Right atrium
poor blood from:
• Superior vena cava (body
regions above diaphragm)
Right ventricle
Left ventricle
• Inferior vena cava (body
regions below diaphragm)
• Coronary sinus (from
Inferior vena cava
myocardium)
Apex
 Gross Anatomy of the Heart
Superior vena cava

Right pulmonary
artery Left pulmonary artery
Pulmonary trunk
• Ventricles are the discharging
chambers
• Right ventricle receives blood Auricle of left atrium
from right atrium
• Contraction of right ventricle
propels blood into pulmonary Right atrium
trunk, from there to left and
right pulmonary arteries
toward the lungs Right ventricle
Left ventricle

Inferior vena cava

Apex
 Gross Anatomy of the Heart
Superior vena cava

Right pulmonary
artery Left pulmonary artery
Pulmonary trunk
• Left atrium receives oxygen-
Left pulmonary veins
rich blood from 4 pulmonary
veins (2 from each lung)
Right
pulmonary Auricle of left atrium
veins
Right atrium

Right ventricle
Left ventricle

Inferior vena cava

Apex
 Gross Anatomy of the Heart
Superior vena cava
Aortic arch
Right pulmonary
artery Left pulmonary artery
Pulmonary trunk
• Left ventricle receives blood Ascending aorta Left pulmonary veins
from left atrium
Right
• Contraction of left ventricle Auricle of left atrium
pulmonary
propels blood into the aorta,
from there to systemic arteries veins
Right atrium

Right ventricle
Left ventricle

Inferior vena cava

Apex
 Gross Anatomy of the Heart
Superior vena cava
Aortic arch
Right pulmonary
artery Left pulmonary artery
Pulmonary trunk
• Coronary arteries arise from Ascending aorta Left pulmonary veins
the base of the aorta
Right
• Supply the myocardium Auricle of left atrium
pulmonary
• Coronary veins drain through veins
sinus back into right atrium Coronary vessels
Right atrium

Right ventricle
Left ventricle

Inferior vena cava

Apex
Gross Anatomy of the Heart
Superior vena cava
Aorta
Left pulmonary artery Right pulmonary artery

Left pulmonary Right pulmonary veins

veins
Right atrium
Auricle of left atrium
Inferior vena cava
Left atrium

Coronary vessels

Left ventricle
Right ventricle

Apex
 Gross Anatomy of the Heart
Superior vena cava
Aorta
Right pulmonary
artery Left pulmonary artery
Right Pulmonary trunk
• Interatrial septum pulmonary Left pulmonary veins
divides atria (not veins
shown) Left atrium
Right atrium
• Interventricular septum Mitral (bicuspid) valve
divides ventricles Pulmonary valve
• Left ventricle dominates Left ventricle
and forms the apex Tricuspid valve
• Blood flow between Chordae tendineae Interventricular septum
atria and ventricles, and
between ventricles and Epicardium
arteries is controlled by Inferior vena cava Myocardium
valves Endocardium
Right ventricle Apex
 Gross Anatomy of the Heart
Superior vena cava
Aorta
Right pulmonary
artery Left pulmonary artery
Right Pulmonary trunk
• Atria thin and mostly pulmonary Left pulmonary veins
smooth except for some veins
pectinate (comb-like) Left atrium
Right atrium
muscles Mitral (bicuspid) valve
• Fossa ovalis: left-over Fossa ovalis Pulmonary valve
from foramen ovalis in Pectinate muscles Left ventricle
fetal heart (bypass of
Tricuspid valve Papillary muscle
pulmonary circuit)
Chordae tendineae Interventricular septum
Trabeculae carneae Epicardium
Inferior vena cava Myocardium
Endocardium
Right ventricle Apex
 Gross Anatomy of the Heart
Superior vena cava
Aorta
Right pulmonary
artery Left pulmonary artery
Right Pulmonary trunk
• Ventricles are thick (left pulmonary Left pulmonary veins
one in particular) for veins
power stroke Left atrium
Right atrium
• Inner surface has Mitral (bicuspid) valve
irregular ridges called Fossa ovalis Pulmonary valve
trabeculae carnea Pectinate muscles Left ventricle
• Papillary muscles play Tricuspid valve Papillary muscle
role in valve function
Chordae tendineae Interventricular septum
Trabeculae carneae Epicardium
Inferior vena cava Myocardium
Endocardium
Right ventricle Apex
 Heart Valves
• Heart valves ensure unidirectional blood flow: Atrium 
Ventricle  Artery (pulmonary trunk / aorta)
• Atrioventricular (AV) valves
• Tricuspid valve (RIGHT)
• 3 flexible cusps (flaps of reinforced endocardium)
• Mitral valve (LEFT)
• 2 cusps (looks like bishop’s miter)
• Also called bicuspid valve
• Chordae tendinae (tendinous cords, “heart strings”)
• Anchor cusps to papillary muscles, keep them from
everting into atria when ventricles contract
• Semilunar (SL) valves
• Pulmonary valve: between right ventricle and pulmonary
Chordae tendinae trunk
attached to tricuspid
• Aortic valve: between left ventricle and aorta
valve flap
• 3 pocket-like cusps, each half-moon (semilunar) shaped
Papillary muscle • Veins supplying atria do not experience much pressure and
collapse during atrial contraction  little backflow
 Atrioventricular Valves
Atrium OPEN • Blood returning to heart fills atria,
increasing atrial pressure
• If PAtrium > PVentricle, valves open, flaps hang
Cusp
limply into ventricles as ventricles fill

Ventricle
Chordae
tendinae • Atria contract, increasing PAtrium and
Papillary
muscle
forcing more blood into ventricles
PAtrium > PVentricle

CLOSED • Ventricles contract, forcing blood against

valve cups
• If PVentricle > PAtrium, valves close
• Papillary muscles contract and chordae
tendinae tighten, preventing valve flap
from everting into atria
PAtrium < PVentricle
 Semilunar Valves
• Ventricles contract, forcing blood against
valves
• If PVentricle > PAorta/Pulmonary Trunk, valves open
OPEN
PVentricle > PAorta/Pulmonary Trunk

• Ventricles relax
• If PAorta/Pulmonary Trunk > PVentricle, blood flows back
from Aorta/Pulmonary Trunk
• Blood fills cusps, valves close
CLOSED
PVentricle < PAorta/Pulmonary Trunk
Coronary Circulation
• Heart wall is too thick to allow sufficient
diffusion of gases and nutrients through
the endocardium  heart needs its own
circulation
• Heart needs a disproportionate amount of
blood supply (~1/20, even though only
1/200 of body weight)
• Left and right coronary arteries arise from
base of the aorta
• Main arteries on the epicardium, send
branches inward to myocardium
• Blockage of coronary arteries causes heart
attack
• Coronary veins converge to form coronary
sinus, which empties into the right atrium
 Cardiac Muscle
• Left side of the heart: systemic circuit pump
• Right side of the heart: pulmonary circuit pump
• Equal amounts of blood pumped into both circuits
at any given time, but very different workloads:
• Pulmonary: short, low-pressure circulation
• Systemic: long pathway through entire body, 5
times as much resistance
Left ventricle • Left myocardium is about 3 times thicker than
right
• Right ventricular cavity is crescent shaped and
wraps partially around left ventricle
• Left side is much more powerful pump
Right ventricle
Interventricular septum (generates much higher pressure)
 Cardiac muscle
Skeletal muscle Cardiac muscle Smooth muscle
• Attached to bones (facial muscles: skin) • Walls of heart • Single unit muscles in walls of visceral
• Long, cylindrical, multinucleate cells • Branching chains of uni- or binucleate cells organs, multiunit muscle in intrinsic
• Obvious striations • Striations eye muscles, airways, large arteries
• Voluntary movements (conscious control) • Involuntary • Single spindle-shaped (fusiform)
• Powerful uninucleate cells
• No striations
Skeletal Muscle
• Striated, contracts by sliding
filament mechanism
• Long, cylindrical, multinucleate
fibers with regular cylindrical
myofibrils
• Fibers are independent of each
other (structurally and
functionally): large number of
motor units
• Contract in response to chemical
transmission from neurons (α-
motor neurons)
 Skeletal Muscle

Elaborate SR with cisterns that

form triads with T tubules
Cardiac Muscle • Striated and contracts by
sliding filament mechanism
• Cells are short, fat, branched,
and interconnected
• Endomysium acts as “tendon”
for myocytes to pull against
• 1 or 2 centrally located nuclei
• Cell volume is 25-35%
mitochondria (2% in skeletal
muscle fibers) and therefore
highly fatigue-resistant
• Almost exclusively relies on
aerobic metabolism. Very
adaptable to different fuel
sources – problem with
coronary blockage is primarily
low oxygen, not nutrients.
Cardiac Muscle • Cells have interlocking plasma
membranes: intercalated discs
• Intercalated discs contain
desmosomes (for anchoring
and to prevent separation)
• Intercalated discs contain gap
junctions for spread of
excitation  myocardium acts
as a single coordinated unit
(functional syncytium)
• Not dependent on chemical
transmission. Excitation is
provided by non-contractile
cardiac muscle cells that are
autorhythmic (pacemakers):
myogenic heartbeat (as
opposed to neurogenic)
Cardiac Muscle • Cardiac muscle cells have
sarcomeres, but
myofibrils vary in size,
shape and they branch 
less obvious striations
• Fewer T tubules, no
triads, SR less elaborate
(no cisterns).
Cardiac Muscle
• Excitation-contraction
coupling comes both from
extracellular Ca2+ and Ca2+
released from SR
Cardiac Muscle

• No tetanus or any summation

(would be useless for a
rhythmic pump): refractory
period longer than contraction
 Summary
• The mammalian heart has 4 chambers, completely separated between left and right, and supplies two
circuits.
• The right atrium receives oxygen-poor blood from the systemic circuit, the right ventricle pumps it
into the pulmonary circuit. The left atrium receives oxygen-rich blood from the pulmonary circuit, the
left ventricle pumps it into the systemic circuit .
• The heart is asymmetric, with ~2/3 on the left of the midline. The left ventricle is much more powerful
because it supplies the much larger systemic circuit.
• The heart is covered by the pericardium, a double-walled sac that lends structural protection and
lubricates it to lower friction during contractions.
• Unidirectional flow through the heart chambers is ensured by valves: The two atrioventricular valves
(tricuspid on the right, mitral on the left) control flow from atria into ventricles; the two semilunar
valves (pulmonary on the right, aortic on the left) control flow from ventricles to main arteries
(pulmonary trunk, aorta).
• The heart itself is supplied by the coronary circuit.
• Cardiac muscle is striated and powerful, but differs in some aspects from skeletal muscles.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
• Between different arteries and veins, which ones carry
oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor blood?
• Why are the atria thin-walled?
• What pressure differentials cause the different heart
valves to open and close?
• What is the functional significance of cardiac muscle
fiber branching and gap junction-coupling?
• Why (teleologically and mechanistically) are heart
contractions not summating?
 BIOL 340 Mammalian Physiology Week 7

The Heart
Midterm 2

TO BE CONTINUED…