6B15PHY

ASTRONOMY & ASTROPHYSICS

MODULE 2
CAN U TELL THE DATE OF BIRTH
 Module 2 - Syllabus
Absolute magnitude - Apparent magnitude -
The colour index of a star - Luminosities of
stars - Stellar parallax (trigonometric) and the
units of stellar distances - Stellar positions :
The celestial coordinates .
8Hrs. (Minimum marks: 7)

Ref: An Introduction to Astrophysics -

Baidyanath Basu - Chapter 3
 STELLAR DISTANCES

• Astronomical Unit (AU)

• light year (ly)
• parsec (pc)
 Astronomical Unit (AU)
• The average separation of the earth and the
sun.
• It is approximately equal to 1.4961011 m.
• Commonly used within the solar system.
 Light Year (ly)
• It is the distance travelled by light in a year.
• Commonly used to denote interstellar distances.
• 1 light year = 9.461015 meters = 9.461012 km.
• The nearest star to the Sun is Proxima Centauri, which
is about 4.4 ly away.
• Sirius (8.8 ly), Betelguese (570 ly), Pole star (1085 ly),
Andromeda galaxy ( 2 million ly)
• Our galaxy (the Milky Way) is about 100,000 ly in
diameter.
• The distance to most distant object seen in the universe
is about 18 billion ly(18109 light years).
 Angular Measurements
Angles are measured in degrees;
Degrees are divided into 60 arcminutes;
Arcminutes are divided into 60
arcseconds

•Full circle = 360º

•1º = 60 (arcminutes)

•1 = 60 (arcseconds)

 The parsec (pc)
• The parallactic second.
• A unit based on the parallax of a star, with the
diameter of the earth’s orbit around the sun as the
base line.
• 1 pc is the distance at which the radius of earth’s orbit
subtends a parallax angle of one second of an arc.
• 1 pc = 206265 AU = 3.26 ly = 3 x 1016 m.
• Commonly used to denote the average separation
between stars in a galaxy.
• The separation between clusters of galaxies is typically
of order 10 Mpc.
PARALLAX
 Parallax
An apparent shift in the relative
positions of two objects when
viewed from different perspectives
The parallax method
hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/HBASE/Astro/para.html
 January view

January
July view

July
 tan p = B
p
d
d = 1.A.U.
tan p

B
• As the Earth orbits the Sun (moving 2 A.U. from one side of its
orbit to the other) nearby stars appear to shift their position
with respect to distant stars. The small angle through which
the stars appear to move is called the parallax angle
• Distance (in pc) =1/parallax angle (in arc sec)
• A star with a parallax angle of 1 arc second lies at a distance
of 1 parsec = 3.26 light years.
CLASSIFICATION OF STARS
An Easy Task?
Brightness of stars
 Apparent brightness
• Brightness of the star as it appears to us.
• Depends on the intrinsic/actual brightness as
well as the distance of the star from the earth.

Absolute brightness
• Depends on the intrinsic/actual brightness
only.
 Stellar Magnitudes
• A measure of stellar brightness.
• Magnitude scale developed on the basis of
measurement of the brightness of stars.
 Magnitudes
• In the Greek system the brightest stars were of the
first magnitude.
• Stars that were not bright enough to be first
magnitude but close were second magnitude stars.
• Stars fainter still were third magnitude and so on
down to the faintest stars visible to the naked eye
which were sixth magnitude stars.
 Magnitudes contd….

• Modern day astronomers came up with the following

rules which describe this system:
• 1. Fainter stars have numerically large magnitudes.
The magnitudes of bright stars are small numbers or
possibly even negative numbers.
• For example, an 11th magnitude star is fainter than
a 9th magnitude star, and a −4th magnitude star is
brighter than a 0th magnitude star.
• 2. Each magnitude corresponds to a difference in
brightness of a factor of 2.512.
• More importantly, stars that differ in magnitude by 5
differ in brightness by a factor of 100 (=2.5125).
 Apparent Magnitude (m)
• Magnitude based on the apparent brightness or
luminosity of the star.
• 2nd century B.C : Hipparchus-classified about 1000
stars - six groups - empirical in nature.
Brightest - m = 1, Faintest - m = 6
• Scale of magnitudes is logarithmic in nature. i.e,.
log l, (not l), changes in equal steps between two
magnitude classes.
• I.e., magnitude classes arrange the stars
according to ratio of brightness.
• Note: All human senses are logarithmic in their
response to stimuli.
 Pogson Scale of Magnitudes
• In 1856, N.R. Pogson - Precise magnitude scale
-Ratio of brightness of a first magnitude star
to that of a sixth magnitude star to be exactly
equal to 100. i.e.
B1
 100
B6

• Also, Equal ratios ‘x’ of brightness would give

equal differences in magnitude. i.e.,
B1 B2 B3 B4 B5
    x
B2 B3 B4 B5 B6
 Pogson Scale of Magnitudes contd.
• Hence , B1
 x 5  100
B6
or
x 5
100  2.512

• or, A 1st magnitude star is 2.5 times brighter

than a 2nd magnitude star.

Thus, the brightness of two stars whose apparent

magnitudes differ by unity will differ by a factor
of 2.512
• The fifth root of 100 is known as Pogson's Ratio
 Pogson Scale of Magnitudes contd..
• If Bm and Bn (n > m)are the brightness of two
stars of magnitudes m and n,
Bm
 (2.512) n  m
Therefore, Bn
Bm
log  (n  m) log(2.512)  0.4(n  m)
Bn
i.e., Difference in the logarithms of brightness
between two successive magnitudes should
be 2/5 = 0.4
OR
Ratio of the brightness of two successive
magnitudes should be 5 100  2.512
Known as the Pogson scale of magnitudes.
• Later, Zero and negative magnitude classes
were introduced for the Brighter stars and
stars fainter than the 6th magnitude
stars(visible through telescopes) were put in
7th , 8th ,… classes.
• i.e., Smaller the magnitude, greater is the
brightness of the star.
• Also, Bm
log  0.4(n  m)  0.4(m  n)
Bn
1 Bm Bm
( m  n)   log  2.5 log
0.4 Bn Bn
Apparent Magnitude: How bright the object
appears to us on Earth.

• Which would look brighter?

Vega, m = 0.03
Antares, m = 1.06
• Which would look brighter?
Sirius, m = -1.4
Venus, m = -4.4
Apparent Magnitude: How bright the object
appears to us on Earth.

• Which would look brighter?

Vega, m = 0.03
Antares, m = 1.06
• Which would look brighter?
Sirius, m = -1.4
Venus, m = -4.4
 The amount of light
received (Brightness) from
the source is proportional
to its energy output
(Luminosity (L) )and
inversely proportional to
the square of the distance
(d):

Luminosity
Brightness =
4π (distance)2
 Luminosity of a Star
• Total amount of light energy given out by a star in
all direction per unit time.
• By Stefan’s law, 2 4
L  4R T

Energy flux or apparent brightness on a unit area

at the observer’s eye, L
f 
4d 2
The apparent magnitude and energy flux are
related as: m  C  2.5 log10 f
or, m  (C  2.5 log10 4 )  2.5 log10 L  5 log10 d
i.e., m depends on intrinsic luminosity & distance.
• Or, if m1 and m2 are the apparent magnitudes
of two stars of luminosities l1 and l2, then
 l1 
m1  m2  2.5 log 
 l2 

• Also, If f is the energy flux, then

 l 
m  C  2.5 log f  C  2.5 log 2

 4d 
• Example: m (sun) = -26.74, m(Sirius) = -1.43
→ lsun/lSirius = Antilog(-0.4(msun-mSirius))
= 1.33 x 1010
Thus Sun is apparently 13 billion times brighter
than Sirius, due to the lesser distance
 Brightness or Energy flux or Intensity , I = L/(4πD2)

This drawing shows how the same amount of radiation from a light source must
illuminate an ever-increasing area as distance
from the light source increases. The area increases as the square of the distance from
the source, so the intensity decreases as
the square of the distance increases.
Inverse Square Law of Brightness
 Absolute Magnitude (M)
• If all stars were at the same distance, it would have been easy
to compare their properties.
• If we can find the stellar distance, its brightness at a standard
distance can be found out by using the inverse square law of
flux.
• Absolute magnitude is defined as the apparent magnitude of
a star if it were at a standard distance of 10 parsec.
• Absolute magnitude depends on the intrinsic luminosity of
the star where as apparent magnitude is a measure of the
apparent brightness or flux of the star.
 Relation b/n m & M
• Consider two identical stars( i.e, with same L):
• Star 1: Let m & Bm be the apparent magnitude
& brightness, d the distance
• Star 2: M & BM be the apparent magnitude &
brightness, D the distance
• Distance modulus, m-M = 5 log d-5, where d
is in pc. ( Derivn in BB)
The distance modulus equation
 Compare some stars:
Absolute Apparent
MSun = +4.8 mSun = -26.8
MSirius = +1.5 mSirius = -1.4
MBetelgeuse = -5.6 mBetelgeuse = 0.50

Which star looks brightest from

Earth?

Which star is brightest?

• The process of measuring apparent brightness
of stars is known as Photometry.
 SPECTROSCOPIC STUDIES OF STARS
Analysis of starlight :
• To obtain information on chemical composition of stars.
• To estimate the surface temperature of stars –Saha’s equation.
• To explore physical condition of stellar atmosphere.
• To know the evolutionary stage of the stars.
• To measure the radial velocity of the stars – Doppler shift in spectral
lines.
Method:
• Stellar spectrum is obtained near a comparison spectrum from
standard sources like He/Ne/Hg discharge tubes.
• Absorption lines in stellar spectra – Fraunhofer lines
• An atom/molecule can be identified by its absorption/emission lines
– finger print
 Various Magnitude Systems
• The response of the Receiving equipment
(Telescope+Filter+Photocell) depends on the
wavelength of light from the star.
• Stellar magnitudes are based on the spectral
energy distribution of
the stars and the wavelength sensitivity of the
detector. (eye/photographic plate/photoelectric
cell)
• Based on effective wavelength
(peak)different magnitude
systems are developed.
 Why different systems?
• Some stars that appeared to have the same brightness
when observed with the naked eye appeared to have
different brightnesses on film, and vice versa.
• The naked eye is sensitive to Yellow light of ̴5500 Ao
• Compared to the eye, the photographic emulsions used
were more sensitive to blue light and less so to red light.
• Also, Different types of photographic emulsions differ in
their sensitivity to different colours.
• Hence, Magnitude systems are designed for different
wavelength ranges.
 The Effect of Filters
• If a blue filter is attached to one's telescope,
one would measure only the blue light
emitted by stars.
 Seeing through a blue filter

In this case, a hot star would appear

brighter than a cool one.
 Seeing through a Red filter

• In this case, a cool star would appear

brighter than a hot one irrespective of the
actual brightness.
 Various Magnitude Systems
1. The Visual System
2. The Photographic System
3. The Photoelectric systems
(i) Six Colour System
(ii) UBV System
(iii) Baker’s RGU System
(iv) Infrared System
Temperature Color
 The Blackbody Spectrum
• A glowing body normally emits radiation over
a range of different wavelengths (or colours).
• A star is regarded nearly as a blackbody.
• Longer wavelengths mean redder light.
Shorter wavelengths imply bluer light.
 Colour of a Star
• The star’s colour is determined by where in the visible
part of the spectrum, the peak of the intensity curve
lies.
• The temperatures of stars span a wide range, from less
than 2000 Kelvin to more than 50,000 Kelvin.
• Most stars emit radiation like a classical blackbody,
with a spectrum which depends mostly on their
temperature.
 1. The Visual System
• Also called the V magnitude system.
• Based on observations with naked eye which is
sensitive to Yellow light (5500 Ao ) .The North
Polar Sequence (NPS) was assigned magnitudes
based on this system.
• When stars are observed visually, the
magnitudes assigned to them according to their
brightness are called Visual magnitudes.
• Apparent visual magnitude is denoted as mv and
absolute visual magnitude as Mv
 2. Photographic Systems
• A system superior to visual method.
• If blue or violet sensitive photographic emulsions are
used to photograph the stellar images, the magnitude
so obtained is called Photographic magnitude ( mpg )
• Based on Photographic plates/emulsions sensitive to
Blue light (4300 Ao )
• A star can be photographed using a yellow filter (5450
Ao) and green and yellow sensitive emulsions to
imitate the sensitivity of human eye, the magnitude
obtained is Photovisual magnitude ( mpv )
• Photographic plate + Yellow filter = Photovisual
System .
 Colour Index of a star.
• The difference between photographic and
photovisual magnitudes of a star is known as the
Colour Index of the star.
• i.e., C.I. = mpg − mpv
• CI is independent of the distance of the stars, since
light of all colours vary inversely as the square of
the distances from the sources.
• Thus, C.I. = mpg − mpv = Mpg − Mpv
• CI is negative for bluish stars and positive for
yellow, orange and red stars. For Sun CI = +0.53
• CI provides a numerical measure of the colour or spectral
energy distribution which depends on its temperature.
C.I. V/s Temperature
 NOTE
• If we use apparent brightnesses based on the
entire range of the em spectrum, then the
magnitude defined from it is called the bolometric
magnitude (m bol )
• Bolometric Correction, BC = mbol − mpv
• Since any device for measuring intensity of light
does not respond to all wavelengths in the same
way, finding the bolometric magnitude from
measurements with a particular device is not
straightforward.
• A much more convenient system, called the
Ultraviolet–Blue–Visual system or the UBV system
is used.
 Interstellar extinction
The reduction in the intensity of starlight by
passage through earth’s atmosphere due to
scattering by air molecules and aerosols(dust
particles, rain drops, etc.). This atmospheric
extinction increases with increasing zenith
distance of a star. Hence a star near the horizon
looks fainter compared to one at the zenith.
 3. Photoelectric Systems
• (i)*** Six-colour System:
 The first multicolour photoelectric system.
 Developed by Stebbins & Whitford in 1943.
 Based on magnitudes measured through Six filters
having effective wl at 3550 Ao (U), 4200 Ao (V), 4900
Ao(B), 5700 Ao (G), 7200 Ao(R) and 10300 Ao (I1).
 Later extended to still longer wl of 21000 A o(I2)
 Useful in studying wavelength dependence of
interstellar extinction & colour temperature of
stars of various spectral types.
 (ii) The UBV System (Johnson-Morgan system)
• Introduced by H L Johnson and W W Morgan in
1956 to compensate the defects of International
two-colour system. Now universally used.
• Comprises three wavelength bands isolated using
ultraviolet(U-3500 Ao), blue(B-4350 Ao) and
Visual(V-5340 Ao) filters. i.e., the light from a star is
made to pass through filters which allow only light
in narrow wavelength bands around the three
wavelengths: 3500 ° A, 4350 °A and 5340A°
• The U filter lets mostly near-ultraviolet light,
B mainly blue light, and V corresponds closely to the
old visual magnitude; its wide peak is in the yellow-
green band, where the eye is most sensitive.
Put a blue filter (B) on the telescope and
observe the star. They then re-observe the
same star with a visual (V), or yellow, filter.
The B filter measures the star’s brightness in
blue light, and the V filter measures the
star’s brightness in yellow light. The
difference between these two, B-V, is the
star’s color.
(ii) The UBV System (Johnson-Morgan system) contd..
• From the measurements of the intensity of light
that has passed through these filters, we get
magnitudes in ultraviolet, blue and visual, usually
denoted by U, B and V.
• Typical examples of V magnitudes are: the Sun, V =
−26.74; Sirius, the brightest star, V = −1.45; faintest
stars measured, V ≈ 27.
• Suppose we consider a reddish star. It will have less
brightness in B band compared to V band. Hence its
B magnitude should have a larger numerical value
than its V magnitude. So we can use (B − V) as an
indication of a star’s colour.
• The more reddish a star, the larger will be the value
of (B − V).
 The UBV System contd.
• This system gives two Colour Indices (CI):
B-V and U-B
Note: B = mB, V = mV & U = mU
• The B-V is roughly same as the usual CI.
• A hot star radiates more in blue and violet than
in yellow or red. Therefore, B of a hot star will be
lesser than its V. Thus the CI B-V for a hot star
will be negative.
• On the other hand, the B-V will be positive for a
cooler star.
 The UBV System contd.

• These Colour indices help to evaluate the

interstellar extinction.
• The UBV System was standardized as:
B-V = U-B = 0 for A0 V (dwarf) stars with no
interstellar extinction.
• The B-V colour index serves as a good indicator
of a star's surface temperature (HR diagram).
 ***(iii) Baker’s RGU System
• Similar to UBV system.
• Red (6380 Ao), Green ( 4680 Ao) and Ultraviolet
(3690 Ao) filters were used.
• Difference between effective wl of U & R is greater
than that for U & V. (UVIBGYOR)
• Here, the zero point is fixed by setting V-G=U-G=G-R
= 0, for B0 type blue stars like Spica which are not
reddened by interstellar extinction.
• Advantage over UBV System:
• Red leak Problem is absent.
• Free from reddening due to interstellar extinction
common for white stars.
 ***(iv) The Infrared System
• With the invention of IR sensitive Germanium
photocells.
• Effective wavelengths are: R(0.70 ųm), I(0.9 ųm),
J(1.25 ųm), K (2.2 ųm), L(3.4 ųm), M(5.0 ųm) and
N (10.2 ųm)
• Here, Magnitude scale was standardised by
setting all these magnitudes equal for dwarf stars
of spectral type A0V.
Problems
 Classification of Stars-The Harvard
Classification System
• Stars are classified into several spectral classes.
• Earlier, Henry Draper catalogue (H. D catalogue) –
criterion-strength of the hydrogen lines.
• Alphabetical system.
• Class A – Strongest H-lines, Class B - next strongest and
so on…
• Later: Harvard spectroscopists classified stars according
to their surface temperature s- lost the alphabetical
order.
• In the order of decreasing temperature- O, B, A, F, G, K,
M.
• Each class is subdivided into 10 subclasses- O0,O1, O2,
……O9, B0, B1, ………, B9 etc. O- Hottest, M-coolest.
 Remember the Balmer Series?

The “calculators” used H lines in spectra

A
B
C
D
E
.
.
.
S
The Harvard Classification System Contd..

• Stars are nearly uniform in composition.

• They are composed of mainly hydrogen and
helium.
• M.N Saha’s suggestion- Spectra & Surface
Temperature
• Low temperature stellar spectra contain molecular
bands - insufficient T to split molecule to atoms.
• Metals- low IP-Dominant in F & G
• Ionized He lines only in hottest O stars.
 Spectral classes - Main Characteristics
Spectral Temperature Main characteristics Colour Typical
Class Range (K) Example

O 30000 - 50000 Ionized He lines dominant Blue Zeta Puppis

B 10000-30000 Neutral He lines dominant, no Blue or Rigel, Spica

ionized He. Bluish White
A 7500-10000 Hydrogen lines dominant White Sirius, Vega

F 6000-7500 Ionized Ca lines, Many metal White Canopus,

lines ( Mn, Fe, Ti, Sr etc.) Polaris
G 4500-6000 Very large no. of metal lines, Yellow Sun, Alpha
Strong ionized Ca lines, ionized Centauri
and neutral Fe.
K 3500-4500 Large no, of neutral metal lines Red Arcturus,
Aldebaran
M 2000-3500 Band spectra of molecules Red Betelgeuse,
( mainly Titanium Oxide) Antares
SPECTRUM OF EACH CLASS
STELLAR EVOLUTION
 HERTZSPRUNG- RUSSEL DIAGRAM

• A graphical representation of the absolute

magnitude(or luminosity) of the stars plotted
against the spectral class ( or temperature).
OR
A plot of some measure of temperature
(spectral class or colour) on horizontal axis
and some measure of luminosity (absolute
magnitude) on vertical axis.
HERTZSPRUNG- RUSSEL DIAGRAM
HERTZSPRUNG- RUSSEL DIAGRAM
 HERTZSPRUNG- RUSSEL DIAGRAM
• Shows the relationship between the absolute
magnitude and Surface temperature of stars
• Stars are plotted according to some measure of their
temperature (Spectral class/colour) v/s luminosity
(absolute magnitude)
• Helps to interpret stellar evolution - Birth, age, death
• Stars appear only in certain parts of the diagram.
• Bright stars are near the top and dimmer stars are
near the bottom
• Most of the stars lying in a narrow band from top
left to bottom right -Main-sequence stars - About
90% belongs to this group .
 HERTZSPRUNG- RUSSEL DIAGRAM
• Brightness of main-sequence stars are related to
mass
• Hotter, more massive blue stars --> cooler, less
massive red stars
 HERTZSPRUNG- RUSSEL DIAGRAM
• Red giants
– Above and to right of main-sequence stars
– Size --> compare them with stars of known size that have
same temperature
• Supergiants = bigger
- Ex: Betelgeuse
• White dwarfs
– Lower-central part
– Fainter than main-sequence stars of same temperature
 Stellar Evolution
• The life cycle-How stars are born, mature, age and
die.
Main Stages ( for a Sun like star):
• Star formation-Interstellar Cloud
• Proto-star stage
• Main Sequence stage
• Red giant stage
• White dwarf stage
A star’s mass determines what life path it will take.
 Stellar Evolution
• The life of any star can be described as a battle
between two forces:
– Gravity vs. Pressure
• Gravity always wants to collapse the star.
• Pressure holds up the star.
– the type of star is defined by what provides the pressure
– So, in different stars the pressure can be provided by:
• Gas (as in the Sun)
• Radiation (in hotter stars than the Sun)
• ‘degeneracy pressure’ (in very dense stars)
Principle is the same though, this balances
gravity, -else the star will collapse!!
 Stellar Evolution contd…

• Remember Newton’s Law of Gravity

– the amount of gravitational force depends on the mass
– gravitational potential energy is turned into heat as a star
collapses
 Birth of a Star
• Born in nebula = dark, cool, interstellar clouds of gas and
dust
– Dense --> contracts --> gravity squeezes particles toward center
--> energy converted into heat energy
• Protostar Stage
Protostar = A developing star not yet
hot enough to engage in nuclear fusion
– Contraction continues --> collapse causes the core to
heat much more intensely than the outer layer
– Temperature rises from ̴100 K to ̴50,000 K in ̴ 1 year.
– heat generated during contraction leads to the
emission of electromagnetic radiations.
– Protostar becomes luminous.
 Protostar Stage contd…
– The glow of the protostar is caused only by the release
of energy due to its gravitational contraction.
– At this stage the protostar can evolve in two
directions:
– 1. If it is massive enough, it will continue the process
of contraction; finally the nuclear reactions will start,
giving the protostar the status of a star.
– 2. Othewise, it will eventually transform into a giant
planet made of gas. E.g. Jupiter, Saturn.
 Maturity - Main Sequence stage
• Core of protostar reaches about 106 K --> nuclear
fusion of hydrogen starts - enters
main sequence stage.
• Hydrogen fusion to Helium ( p-p or C-N)
– Gases increase motion
--> increase in outward gas pressure
– Outward pressure from fusion
balances inward force of gravity
– Loss of energy from outer is
balanced by nuclear energy production
from the interior.
– Becomes main-sequence star (stable) - A star is born!!!
 Main-sequence stage
• Balanced between forces of gravity (trying to
squeeze into smaller space) and gas pressure (trying
to expand it)
• Hydrogen fusion for few billion years
– Hot, massive blue stars deplete fuel in only few million
years
– Least massive main sequence remain stable for hundreds
of billions of years
– Yellow star (sun) = 10 billion years
• 90% of life as main-sequence star
 Ageing of Stars
– Helium nuclei being 4 times heavier than the hydrogen
nuclei, they "sink" into the centre of the star.
– He collects at the centre.
– Runs out of hydrogen fuel in core.
– The nuclear reaction in the centre of the star comes to a
gradual halt.
– Temperature of the core of the star decreases.
– Core contracts --> Outer layer expands
– Energy radiated / area decreases-->Surface temperature
decreases .
– Colour changes from white to red.
– Burning of hydrogen continues NOT in the core of the star,
but in the envelope surrounding the core of the star.
– Outer layers of the star expand.
– There is less gravity from above to balance this pressure.
– The star is now in the Subgiant phase of its life.
Leaving the Main Sequence
 Red Giant Stage
• Zone of hydrogen fusion moves outward --> helium
core
– All hydrogen in core is used up (no fusion in core) --> still
taking place in outer shell
• Not enough pressure to support itself against force of
gravity --> core contracts
• Core gets hotter --> hydrogen fusion in outer shell
increases --> expands outer layer --> giant body
• Surface cools --> red
• Core keeps heating up and converts helium to carbon
to produce energy through ‘Triple alpha process’
 Red Giants
• The He core collapses until it heats to 108 K
– He fusion begins ( He  C)
– sometimes called the “triple- process”

• The star, called a Red Giant, is once again

stable.
– gravity vs. pressure from He fusion reactions
Red Giants
Sun’s Red Giant Phase
 He flash/Planetary Nebulae
• When the Red Giant exhausts its He fuel:
– The temperature of the core of the star rises as the
result of the new nuclear reaction.
– Results in faster nuclear reaction.
– Finally the pressure is so great that the core of the
star explodes.
– Visible by a sudden, although moderate, increase of
the star's brightness. This is called the helium flash.
• The He & H burning shells overcome gravity:
– the outer envelope of the star is gently blown away
– this forms a planetary nebula.
Death of Stars
 Death of a Star
• All stars collapse into one of the three: white dwarf,
neutron star, or black hole

• White dwarf - Final stage of the evolution of low-mass

stars:
– When all the nuclear fuel of a star is exhausted, the star
undergoes a high degree of contraction.
– The collapse of the core continues until a new kind of pressure
is able to support the star against gravity.
– This pressure is called electron degeneracy pressure.
– Electron degeneracy pressure is a consequence of the Pauli
Exclusion Principle.
– Extremely small with high densities. (of the order of 108 kg/m3).

– Mass limit is known as Chandrasekhar limit.

 Chandrasekhar Limit
• The upper mass limit for the White dwarfs.
• A star can end up as a WD iff the mass of the
remnant core is less than or equal to1.4 M
• Here, the electron degeneracy pressure is able to stabilize
the star against gravitational contraction.
• No white dwarf has been found with a mass greater
than 1.4 times the solar mass.
 Death of Massive Stars
• A star that is too heavy to evolve into a white dwarf collapses
under gravitational forces when all nuclear reactions stop.
• This sudden collapse leads to an explosion of the star, which
is known as a supernova.
• During this explosion, it loses most of its mass.
• The final stage after supernova explosion depends on the
remnant mass.
• If the remnant mass of star ranges between about 1.4 to 3
times the solar mass, it is no longer able to support itself by
electron degeneracy pressure.
• They continue its collapse until a new source of pressure,
called neutron degeneracy pressure, is able to
stop the collapse.
• Leads to the birth of a neutron star.
 Neutron stars
• Neutron star : smaller and more massive than white
dwarfs i.e., M > 1.4 M,
– Remnants of supernovas.
– Electron degeneracy pressure insufficient to balance
gravitational contraction.
– Electrons in the atoms are forced into the nucleus-inverse
beta decay. P +e --> n +neutrino
– Composed entirely of neutrons.
– New pressure develops - neutron degeneracy pressure.
– Highly dense & Has strong magnetic field.
• Neutron stars that are rotating rapidly are known as pulsars.
• Emits short bursts of radio energy.
– Remains of supernova.
 Black Holes
• Black hole : A massive star that has collapsed to such a small
volume that its gravity prevents the escape of everything.
• The gravitational force becomes so great that even light cannot
escape from the star!
– Cannot be seen.
– MS mass very large so that neither electron degeneracy
pressure nor neutron degeneracy pressure is able to arrest the
gravitational contraction.
– Evidence of matter being rapidly swept into an area.
– Exists as binary star system.
– Radius of the “star” becomes so small that the escape velocity
approaches the speed of light-Schwarzschild Radius -Event
Horizon.
 The Basic Physics of Black Holes
• For stars with masses greater than 5-10 solar masses, the
gravitational collapse cannot be arrested.
• It continues to contract to very small radii.
• The critical/limiting radius below which the surface
gravitation becomes so intense that not even light may
escape and hence the star disappears from view is called
Schwarzschild radius.
• Thus, a star becomes a black hole if all its mass is
concentrated in a sphere of radius equal to the
Schwarzschild radius.
 Stellar Evolution – Summary
• 1. Interstellar clouds: The interstellar space
has non-uniform distributions of gases (mainly
hydrogen and helium) and dust particles. This
interstellar matter has local concentrations of
cloud-like structures known as interstellar
clouds.
 Stellar Evolution – Summary
• 2. Protostar: During a period spanning
millions of years, due to gravitational
attraction between the gas molecules, the
interstellar cloud shrinks from billions of
kilometers to around 200 million kilometers
and the temperature increases from about
100K to 50,000K. The gases are ionized and
the heat generated during contraction leads
to the emission of electromagnetic radiations.
This stage in the evolution of the star is known
as the protostar.
 Stellar Evolution – Summary
• 3. Main sequence star:
Further gravitational contraction of the protostar
increases its temperature to around 1.5x 107K and
fusion of hydrogen nuclei begin and the protostar
evolves into a main sequence star. During thisstage,
gravitational contraction is absent and the energy
produced by thermonuclear reactions is radiated. In
massive stars (having masses greater than 1.5 times
the mass of the sun), energy production takes place
through the Carbon-Nitrogen- Oxygen bi-cycle. In
smaller stars, energy production is by proton-proton
cycle.
 Stellar Evolution – Summary
• 4. Red Giant: As the hydrogen in the core of
the star is converted to helium, nuclear
reactions at the center gradually stops and the
star begins to contract again. During this stage,
fusion of hydrogen nuclei is confined to a shell
surrounding the core of the star. Due to the
heat generated in this outer envelope, the
outer layers of the star expand. As a result of
this expansion of the envelope, the surface of
the star becomes cooler and the star becomes
reddish in colour. Thus the star becomes a red
giant.
 Stellar Evolution – Summary
• 5.Helium flash:
During the red giant stage, the core of the
star continues to contract and when its
temperature rises to 108 K, Helium nuclei start
fusing into Carbon nuclei through the triple
alpha process. As a result, the temperature
and pressure of the core increases, which
leads to an explosion during which all He
nuclei are converted into heavier nuclei. This
is known as Helium flash.
 Stellar Evolution – Summary
• 6. White dwarf:
Stars having masses less than 1.4 times the
mass of the sun (known as Chandrasekhar
limit) evolves into white dwarfs when all the
nuclear fuel has been exhausted. During this
stage, the gravitational force is balanced by
electron degeneracy pressure. The density of
matter in the white dwarf star is very high (of
the order of 108 kg/m3).
 Stellar Evolution – Summary
• 7. Supernova and neutron stars:
A star that is too heavy to evolve into a white
dwarf collapses under gravitational forces when all
nuclear reactions stop. This sudden collapse leads to
an explosion of the star, which is known as a
supernova, in which loses most of its mass.
 Stellar Evolution – Summary
• 8. Neutron stars:
If the remaining mass after Supernova explosion is
greater than the Chandrasekhar limit and less than
about 3 solar masses, it again contracts till the
neutrons become degenerate. At this stage, the
density is about 20 times that of the white dwarf. At
this stage, only neutrons are present in the star and
hence it is called a neutron star. Neutron stars that
are rotating rapidly are known as pulsars.
 Stellar Evolution – Summary
• 9. Black hole:
If the remaining mass after supernova is greater
than 3 solar masses, neither electron or neutron
degeneracy pressure can prevent gravitational
collapse of the star. In this case, the star collapses
under gravity and its density increases enormously.
When the radius of the star becomes less than the
Schwarzchild radius (R = 2GM/c2 , where M is the
mass of the star, G, the universal gravitational
constant and c is the velocity of light), the
gravitational force becomes so great that even light
cannot escape from the star and it becomes a black
hole.
Summary : Differences between Lifecycle of
High and Low Mass Stars
• Compared to low-mass stars, high-mass stars:
– live much shorter lives
– have a significant amount of pressure supplied by
radiation
– fuse Hydrogen via the CNO cycle instead of the p-p chain
– die as a supernova; low-mass stars die as a planetary
nebula
– can fuse elements heavier than Carbon
– may leave either a neutron star or black hole behind
• low-mass stars leave a white dwarf behind
– are far less numerous
 What have we learned?
• What kind of pressure opposes the inward pull of
gravity during most of a star’s life?
• Thermal pressure, owing to heat produced either by fusion or gravitational
contraction, opposes gravity during most of a star’s life.
• What basic stellar property determines how a star will
live and die, and why?
• A star’s mass determines its fate, because it sets both the star’s luminosity and
its spectral type.

• How do we categorize stars by mass?

• Low-mass stars are those born with less than about 2 MSun. Intermediate-mass
stars are those born with mass between about 2–8 MSun. High-mass stars are
those born with greater than about 8 MSun.
 What have we learned?
• Where are stars born?
• Stars are born in cold, relatively dense molecular clouds — so-named because
they are cold enough for molecular hydrogen (H2) to form.

• What is a protostar?
• Gravitational contraction of a molecular cloud fragment can create a protostar, a
compact clump of gas that will eventually become a star. A protostar in the
early stages of becoming a star is usually enshrouded in gas and dust. Because
angular momentum must be conserved, a contracting protostar is often
surrounded by a protostellar disk circling its equator.,.
 What have we learned?
• Summarize the “pre-birth” stages of a star’s life.
• (1) Protostar assembles from a cloud fragment and is bright in infrared light
because gravitational contraction rapidly transforms potential energy into
thermal energy. (2) Luminosity decreases as gravitational contraction shrinks
protostar’s size, while convection remains the dominant way by which thermal
energy moves from the interior to the surface. (3) Surface temperature rises
and luminosity levels off when energy transport switches from convection to
radiative diffusion, with energy still generated by gravitational contraction. (4)
Core temperature and rate of fusion gradually rise until energy production
through fusion balances the rate at which the protostar radiates energy into
space. At this point, the forming star becomes a main-sequence star.
 What have we learned?
• What are the major phases of life of a low-mass star?
• Main sequence, in which the star generates energy by fusing hydrogen in the
core. Red giant, with hydrogen shell-burning around an inert helium core.
Helium-core burning, along with hydrogen shell burning (star on horizontal
branch on HR diagram). Double shell-burning of hydrogen and helium shells
around an inert carbon core. Planetary nebula, leaving a white dwarf behind.

• Red giants created and released much of the carbon that exists in the universe,
including the carbon that is the basis of organic molecules on Earth.
 What have we learned?
• What prevents carbon from fusing to heavier
elements in low-mass stars?
• Electron degeneracy pressure counteracts the
crush of gravity, preventing the core of a low-mass
star from ever getting hot enough for carbon
fusion.
 What have we learned?
• State several ways in which high-mass stars differ
from low-mass stars.
• High-mass stars live much shorter lives than low-mass stars. High-mass stars
have convective cores but no other convective layers, while low-mass stars
have convection layers that can extend from their surface to large depths.
Radiation supplies significant pressure support within high-mass stars, but this
form of pressure is insignificant within low-mass stars. High-mass stars fuse
hydrogen via the CNO cycle, while low-mass fuse hydrogen via the proton-
proton chain. High-mass stars die in supernovae, while low-mass stars die in
planetary nebulae. Only high mass stars can fuse elements heavier than
carbon. A high-mass star may leave behind a neutron star or a black hole, while
a low-mass star leaves behind a white dwarf. High-mass stars are far less
common than low-mass stars.
 What have we learned?
• State several ways in which high-mass stars differ
from low-mass stars.
• High-mass stars live much shorter lives than low-mass stars. High-mass stars
have convective cores but no other convective layers, while low-mass stars
have convection layers that can extend from their surface to large depths.
Radiation supplies significant pressure support within high-mass stars, but this
form of pressure is insignificant within low-mass stars. High-mass stars fuse
hydrogen via the CNO cycle, while low-mass fuse hydrogen via the proton-
proton chain. High-mass stars die in supernovae, while low-mass stars die in
planetary nebulae. Only high mass stars can fuse elements heavier than
carbon. A high-mass star may leave behind a neutron star or a black hole, while
a low-mass star leaves behind a white dwarf. High-mass stars are far less
common than low-mass stars.
 Summary
• There is an upper limit to the mass of a white dwarf - we do not see WDs with
masses > 1.4 M
• The collapse of massive stars produces two types of remnants - neutron stars and
black holes.
• NS masses are clustered around 1.4 M
• The maximum limit for a stable neutron star is 3-5M 
• Hard lower limits for masses of compact objects have been determined which have
values much greater than this limit
• These are the best stellar mass black hole candidates - with masses of 5-15 M  they
may be the collapsed remnants of very massive stars.

125
GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A STAR
Arrival on the Main Sequence
• The mass of the protostar
determines:
– how long the protostar
phase will last
– where the new-born star
will land on the MS
– i.e., what spectral type the
star will have while on the
main sequence

© 2004 Pearson Education Inc., publishing

as Addison-Wesley
Post-Main-Sequence Evolution of Stars
Core collapses;
outer shells
bounce off the
hard surface of
the degenerate
Formation of a Planetary Nebula
C,O core

C,O core
becomes
degenerate
Fusion stops
at formation
of C,O core.

M < 4 Msun Red dwarfs:

He burning
M < 0.4 Msun never ignites
Summary of Post-Main-Sequence
Evolution of Stars
Supernova
Fusion
proceeds;
formation Evolution of 4 -
of Fe core. 8 Msun stars is
still uncertain.

Mass loss in
stellar winds
M > 8 Msun Fusion stops may reduce
at formation them all to < 4
of C,O core. Msun stars.

M < 4 Msun Red dwarfs:

He burning
never ignites
M < 0.4 Msun
 Leaving the Main Sequence
• Toward end of H-burning # particles drops in core and it shrinks
and burns hotter
• The core begins to collapse
– H shell heats up and H fusion begins there
– there is less gravity from above to balance this pressure
– so the outer layers of the star expand
– the star is now in the subgiant phase of its life

© 2004 Pearson Education

Inc., publishing as Addison-
Wesley