SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE

AT NAGROTA BAGWAN

BUILDING BYE-LAWS

TOPIC – STRUCTURE DESIGN

SUBMITTED TO: AR. OJASWI

SUMITTED BY: 18BAR0110
18BAR0112
18BAR0126
18BAR0130
CONTENT
 LOAD, FORCES AND THEIR EFFECTS

INTRODUCTION :- This Part of code covers the various loads, forces and effects which are to be taken into account for structural
design of buildings. The various loads that are covered under this Section are dead load, imposed load, wind load, seismic
force, snow load, special loads and load combinations.

WHY WE STUDYING:- FOR BASIC UNDERSTANDING ABOUT HOW STRUCTURE BEHAVE,WORK.

I THINK WE ALL ARE FAMILIER WITH THESE TERMS ALREADY BUT LET’S RECALL IT AGAIN,SO LET’S START……
DEAD LOAD:- The dead load in a building shall comprise the weight of all walls, partitions, floors and roofs, and shall include the
weights of all other permanent construction.
LIVE LOAD :- ARE THOSE LOAD PRODUCED BY THE USE AND OCCUPANCY OF A BUILDING OR STRUCTURE AND DO
NOT INCLUDE CONSTRUCTION LOAD.
IMPOSED LOAD:- The imposed loads specified herein are minimum loads which should be taken into consideration for the
purpose of structural safety of buildings. ( imposed load table in 3 rd slide)

DUST LOAD:-In areas prone to settlement of dust on roofs (for example, steel plants, cement plants), provision for dust load
equivalent to probable thickness of accumulation of dust May be made
Snow load and rain load :- that load which is created due to snow load in hilly areas and rain water load consider for area
which is comes under heavy rainfall area

Seismic load :- that load which is generated due to seismic waves during earthquake vibrations so that is seismic load

A uniform distributed load is a force that is applied evenly over the distance of a support

A concentrated load is a force applied at a single point on a beam or structure. Beams are commonly used for structural support
in homes.

All these above mentioned loads calculated during designing of any structure ,thoroughly calculated using related data .
Buildings shall also be designed with due attention to the effects
of wind on the comfort of people inside and outside the buildings.
Very strong winds (more than 80 km/h) are generally associated
with cyclonic storms, thunderstorms, dust storms or vigorous
monsoons.

basic Wind speed

Seismic zones of india

For seismic load calculation we have to think about the
seismic zone and also the building shape and height in
earthquake prone area.
Now foundation ..Foundation — That part of the structure which is in direct contact with and transmits loads to the ground.
Footing — A structure constructed in brick work, masonry or concrete under the base of a wall or column for the purpose of distributing the load
over a larger area
There are mainly two types of foundation

Shallow Foundation — A foundation whose width is generally equal to or greater than its depth. The shearing resistance of the soil in the
sides of the foundation is generally neglected.

Spread (or Isolated or Pad) Foundation/ Footing — A foundation which transmits the load to the ground through one or more footings. A spread
footing (or isolated or pad) is provided to support an individual column. A spread footing is circular, square or rectangular slab of uniform thickness.

Raft — A substructure supporting an arrangement of columns or walls in a row or rows transmitting the loads to the soil by means of a continuous
slab, with or without depressions or openings.

Strip Foundation/Footing — A type of shallow foundation which provides continuous and longitudinal bearing for loads carried by vertical elements,
such as continuous wall foundation beams or the like. A strip footing is also provided for a row of columns which are so closely spaced that their
spread footings overlap or nearly touch each other. A strip footing is also known as continuous footing.

Pile Foundation:- pile foundations are deep foundations. They are formed by long, slender, columnar elements typically made from steel
and concrete also.
Design consideration of foundation :-
when the ground surface slopes downward adjacent to a footing, the sloping surface shall not intersect a frustum of bearing material under the
footing having sides which make an angle of 30° with the horizontal for soil and horizontal distance from the lower edge of the footing to the sloping
surface shall be at least 600mmforrock and 900mmforsoil

On slope foundation
The common methods of subsoil exploration are given below :-

The most commonly used exploration procedure is boring in which different field testing procedures, like, standard penetration tests (SPT), field
vane shear tests (VST), collection of undisturbed and disturbed sampling (UDS and DS), ground water table observations and field classification
are employed.

Open trial pits :- — The method consists of excavating trial pits and thereby exposing the subsoil surface thoroughly

Auger boring:- — The auger is either power or hand operated with periodic removal of the cuttings. Auger boring can be adopted in soft to
stiff cohesive soils above water table. Augers shall be of helical or post hole type which may be manually or power operated

Wash boring:-In wash boring, the soil is loosened and removed from the borehole by a stream of water or drilling mud is worked up and down
or rotated in the borehole. The water or mud flow carries the soil up the annular space between the wash pipe and the casing and it overflows at
ground level where the soil in suspension is allowed to settle in a pond or tank and the fluid is re-circulated as required. Samples of the settled
out soil can be retained for identification purposes but this process is often unreliable. However, accurate identification can be obtained if
frequent sampling is resorted to using undisturbed sample tubes.
SECTION 3 TIMBER :
SCOPE :This Code covers the general principles involved in the design of structural timber in buildings, including elements of
structures connected together by fasteners/fastening techniques.
TIMBER : Wood prepared for use in buildings

DEFECTS IN TIMBER :

• defects due to natural forces

• Chemical stains – the wood is sometimes discolored by the chemical actions .
• Knots - knots are the spots of weakness in timber. These are the bases of branches which are broken and cut off
from trees.
• Shakes – They are the longitudinal separations in wood between annual rings. These are basically cracks in timber.
• Twisted fibre – these are caused by twisting of young trees by fast blowing wind.
• Upsets – wood fibers that are injured by crushing or compression.
• Defects due to seasoning
MATERIALS AND SPECIFICATONS IN TIMBER :

SPECIES OF TIMBER : Species of timber recommended for constructional purposes are classified in three groups on the basis of their
strength properties, namely, modulus of elasticity (E) and extreme fibre stress in bending-tension (fb ). The general characteristics like
durability, treatability and seasoning of the species are also important.
• moisture content in timber
• Location of defects
• Grading of structural timber
• Sizes
• Tolerance
• Suitability

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

1. All structural members, assemblies or framework in a building, in combination with the floors, walls and other structural parts
of the building shall be capable of sustaining, with due stability and stiffness the whole dead and imposed loadings.
2. Buildings shall be designed for all dead and imposed loads or forces assumed to come upon them during construction or use
3. Flexural structural members shall be investigated for the following:
a) Bending strength
b) Maximum horizontal shear
c) Stress at the bearing
d) Deflection.
4. The minimum width of the beam or any flexural member shall not be less than 50 mm or 1/50 of the span, whichever is
greater.
5. The depth of beam or any flexural member shall not be taken more than three times of its width without lateral stiffening.

GLUED LAMINATED CONSTRUCTION

Developments in the field of synthetic adhesive have brought gluing techniques within the range of engineering practice.
Timber members of larger cross-sections and long lengths can be fabricated from small sized planks by the process of
glulam. The term glued laminated timber construction as applied to structural members refers to various laminations glued
together, either in straight or curved form, having grain of all laminations essentially parallel to the length of the member
CHOICE OF GLUE

• The adhesive used for glued laminated assembly are ‘gap filling ’ type.
• . A ‘filler in powder form is introduced in the adhesive. Structural adhesives are supplied either in powder form to which
water is added or in resin form to which a hardener or catalyst is added.
MANUFACTURING SCHEDULE

In absence of a systematic flow-line in a factory, provisions of intermediate technology shall be created for manufacturing
structural elements.
The schedule involves the following steps:
a) Drying of planks
b) Planning;
c) End-jointing by scarf or fingers;
d) Machining of laminations;
e) Setting up dry assembly of structural unit;
f) Application of glue;
g) Assembly and pressing the laminations;
h) Curing the glue lines, as specified; and
i) Finishing, protection and storage.
Design of Glued Laminated Beams
DESIGN

The design of glue laminated wood elements shall be in accordance with good engineering practice and shall take into
consideration the species and grade of timber used, presence of defects, location of end joints in laminations, depth of beams
and moisture contents expected while in service
MATERIAL
1. Laminating boards shall not contain decay, knots or other strength reducing characteristics in excess of those sizes or
amounts permitted by specifications.
2. Glue shall be of type suitable for the intended service of a structural member.

GLUED FINGER JOINTS

• Finger joints are glued joints connecting timber members end-to-end.
• Such joints shall be produced by cutting profiles (tapered projections) in the form of v-shaped grooves to the
ends of timber planks or scantling to be joined, gluing the interfaces and then mating the two ends together
under pressure. Finger joints provide long lengths of timber.
MANUFACTURING PROCESS
In the absence of sophisticated machinery, the finger joints shall be manufactured through intermediate technology with the
following steps:
a) Drying of wood
b) Removal of knots and other defects
c) Squaring the ends of the laminating planks
d) Cutting the profile of finger joint in the end grain
e) Applying adhesives on the finger interfaces
f) Pressing the joint together at specified pressure
g) Curing of adhesive line at specified temperature
h) Planing of finger-jointed planks for smooth surface
SECTION 3 BAMBOO: 3B BAMBOO
SCOPE

This Code covers the general principles involved in the design of structural bamboo in buildings with regard to mechanical
resistance and durability of structures. Design of both bamboo (round bamboo, split bamboo, glued laminated bamboo) and
bamboo-based panels joined together with adhesives or mechanical fasteners are covered in this Subsection. It also covers
minimum strength data, dimensional stability, grading requirements and traditional bamboo joints for quality assurance.
MATERIALS

The requirements shall be met by the choice of suitable materials, by appropriate design and detailing and by specifying
control procedures for production, construction and use
• Species of Bamboo
More than 100 species of bamboo are native to India and a few of them are solid but most of them are hollow in structure. In
all 20 species have been systematically tested so far. Sixteen species of bamboo are recommended for structural usages in
round form.
Matured bamboo of at least 4 years of age shall be used. The bamboo shall be used after at least six weeks of felling
period.
Solid bamboos or bamboos whose wall thickness is comparatively more and which are generally having nodes very closer
are often considered good for structural purposes.
Broken, damaged or collapsed bamboo shall be rejected.

MOISTURE CONTENT IN BAMBOO

Normally only dry or seasoned bamboo shall be used otherwise special attention shall be given to dimensional changes
occurring during the drying process in the joints, assemblies.
GRADING OF STRUCTURAL BAMBOO
Bamboo shall be graded to ensure that the properties of bamboo are satisfactory for use particularly the strength and stiffness
properties. Grading is sorting out bamboo on the basis of characteristics important for structural utilization as under:
a) Diameter and length of Culm; b) Taper of Culm; c) Straightness of Culm; d) Inter nodal length and distribution of nodes; e)
Wall thickness; f) Density and strength; and g) Durability and seasoning.
• The minimum length of culms shall be preferably 6 m for facilitating close fittings at joints, etc.
• The taper shall not be more than 5.8 mm per metre length (or 0.58 percent) (1 in 170) of bamboo in any grade of bamboo.
• The maximum curvature should not be more than 75 mm in a length of 6 m of any grade of bamboo.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
A structure shall be designed and constructed by personnel having the appropriate skill and experience in such a way that,

• the structure will be adequately maintained

• all structural members, assemblies or framework in a building shall be capable of sustaining,
JOINTS
SECTION 4 MASONRY
SCOPE :design aspects of unreinforced load bearing and nonload bearing walls, constructed with masonry units permitted in
accordance with this section
MATERIALS
The materials used in masonry construction shall be in accordance with Part 5 ‘Building Materials ’ of the Code. Storage of materials shall
be in accordance with good practice [6-4(1)].
MASONRY UNITS
Masonry units used in construction shall conform to accepted standards [6-4(2)]
Masonry units may be of the following types:
a) Common burnt clay building bricks,
b) Burnt clay fly ash building bricks,
c) Pulverized fuel ash lime bricks
d) Stones (in regular sized units),
e) Sand-lime bricks
f) Concrete blocks (solid and hollow),
g) Lime based blocks,
h) Burnt clay hollow blocks
i) Gypsum partition blocks,
j) Autoclaved cellular concrete blocks,
k) Stabilized soil blocks,
l) Concrete stone masonry blocks.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Design Loads
Loads to be taken into consideration for designing masonry components of a structure are:
a) dead loads of walls, columns, floors and roofs
b) imposed loads of floors and roof
c) wind loads on walls and sloping roof
d) seismic forces
Lintels
Length of bearing of lintel at each end shall not be less than 90 mm or one-tenth of the span, whichever is more, and area of the bearing shall be
sufficient to ensure that stresses in the masonry (combination of wall stresses, stresses due to arching action and bearing stresses from the
lintel) do not exceed the stresses permitted

BUILDING CONFIGURATION
In order to minimize torsion and stress concentration, provisions given in 8.2.4.2 to 8.2.4.4 should be complied with as
relevant
The building should have a simple rectangular plan and be symmetrical both with respect to mass and rigidity so that
the centre of mass and rigidity of the building coincide with each other in which case no separation sections other than
expansion joints are necessary.
PREFABRICATION SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION : -

Prefabrication is the practice of assembling components of a structure in factory or other manufacturing site, and
transporting the complete assemblies or sub-assemblies to the construction site where the structure is to be located.

SCOPE :-

Prefabrication is more efficient, low cost, time saver, reduce the wastage, reduce the manpower, maintenance is less
and can be reused in the material stream.

USES OF PREFABRICATION SYSTEM :-

• 50% reduction in the amount of water used in construction of a typical house.

• 30% reduction in construction costs.
• 30% reduction in construction time.
• 60% reduction in defects on completion
• Eco-friendly
TYPES OF PREFABRICATION :-

Prefabrication systems are divided in three different types in terms of structural configuration :-
1. Frame system
2. Panel system
3. Cell system

4. Frame system - The term frame systems in basic designing allude to loadopposing sub-arrangement of a structure.
5. Panel system - Panel System is one of the prefabrication systems ideal for straight, curved or angled facade applications
and has an elegant and light appearance with smooth rounded edges.
6. Cell system - Cells system is a modern system where burden bearing dividers give the essential vertical backing and
horizontal solidness for floors.

PRINCIPLES OF PREFABRICATION TECHNIQUES :-

• Design for prefabrication, presambly and moduler construction.

• Simplify and standardize connection details.
• Simplify and separate building systems.
• Consider worker safety during deconstruction.
• Minimize building components and materials.
• Select fittings, fasteners, adhesive and sealants that allow for quicker assembly and facilitate the removal of reusable
materials.
• Reduce building complexity.
• Design for reusable materials
• Design for flexibility and adaptability.
PREFABRICATION AS LOW COST HOUSING :-

• Self supporting, shuttering and scaffolding is eliminated with a saving in shuttering cost.
• The mould for the precast components can be used for large number of repetitions thereby reducing the cost of the
mould per unit.
• Time is saved by the use of precast elements which are casted off-site during the course of foundations being laid.
• Similar types of components are produced repeatedly, resulting in increased productivity and economy in cost too.
• The work at site is reduced to minimum, thereby, enhancing the quality of work, reliability and cleanliness.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PREFABRICATION SYSTEM :-

• Lightweight
• Thermal insulation property
• Easy workability
• Durability in all weather conditions
• Non combustibility
• Easy availability
• Sound insulation
GLASS & GLAZING
INTRODUCTION :-

The act of installing glass in windows, doors or fixed openings. To glaze a unit would be the actual installation of a piece of glass
within a frame or sash. The term is also referred to as all the glass within a structure. The glazing required within a structure
would be described as all of the glass required to accommodate that structure. To glaze an opening is to install the glass within
the frame or sash of that opening. The glazing for a project, would identify all of the glass required for that project and is now
used as a noun as opposed to the verb. In addition to the standard glass on a project the glazing for a project would normally
include all of the storefront glass, the skylights, the interior fixed lites, etc. required to complete the project.
HOW GLASS IS USED IN CONSTRUCTION :-
PROPERTIES OF GLASS :-

• Transparency: This property allows visual connection with the outside world. Its transparency can be
permanently altered by adding admixtures to the initial batch mix. By the advent of technology clear glass
panels used in buildings can be made opaque. (Electro chromatic glazing)

• U value: The U-value is the measure of how much heat is transferred through the window. The lower the U-
value the better the insulation properties of the glass– the better it is at keeping the heat or cold out.

• Strength: Glass is a brittle material but with the advent of science and technology, certain laminates and
admixtures can increase its modulus of rupture( ability to resist deformation under load).

• Greenhouse effect: The greenhouse effect refers to circumstances where the short wavelengths of visible
light from the sun pass through glass and are absorbed, but the longer infrared re-radiation from the heated
objects are unable to pass through the glass. This trapping leads to more heating and a higher resultant
temperature.

• Workability: It is capable of being worked in many ways. It can be blown, drawn or pressed. It is possible to
obtain glass with diversified properties- clear, colorless, diffused and stained. Glass can also bewelded by
fusion.
PROPERTIES OF GLASS :-

• Recyclable: Glass is 100% recyclable, cullets (Scraps of broken or waste glass gathered for re-melting) are used as raw
materials in glass manufacture, as aggregates in concrete construction etc.

• Solar heat gain coefficient: It is the fraction of incident solar radiation that actually enters a building through the entire
window assembly as heat gain.

• Visible transmittance: Visible transmittance is the fraction of visible light that comes through the glass.

• Energy efficiency and acoustic control: Energy-efficient glazing is the term used to describe the double glazing or triple
glazing use in modern windows in homes. Unlike the original single glazing or old double glazing, energy-efficient glazing
incorporates coated (low-emissivity) glass to prevent heat escaping through the windows. The air barrier also enhances
acoustic control.
 TYPES OF GLASS :-
• Float Glass: Float glass is also called soda lime glass or clear glass. This is produced by annealing the molten glass and is
clear and flat. Its modulus of rupture is 5000-6000 psi. Stronger than Rocky Balboa taking punches from 2000 psi punches man
Ivan Drago. It is available in standard thickness ranging from 2mm to 20mm. and has weight range in 6-26kg/m2. It has too
much transparency and can cause glare. It is used in making canopies, shop fronts, glass blocks, railing partitions, etc.

• Tinted Glass: Certain additions to the glass batch mix can add color to the clear glass without compromising its strength. Iron
oxide is added to give glass a green tint; sulphar in different concentrations can make the glass yellow, red or black. Copper
sulphate can turn it blue. Etc.

• Toughened Glass: This type of glass is tempered, may have distortions and low visibility but it breaks into small dice-like pieces
at modulus of rupture of 3600 psi. Hence it is used in making fire resistant doors etc. They are available in same weight and
thickness range as float glass.

• Laminated Glass: This type of glass is made by sandwiching glass panels within a protective layer. It is heavier than normal
glass and may cause optical distortions as well. It is tough and protects from UV radiation (99%) and insulates sound by 50%.
Used in glass facades, aquariums, bridges, staircases, floor slabs, etc.
• Shatterproof glass: By adding a polyvinyl butyral layer, shatter proof glass is made. This type of glass does not from sharp
edged pieces even when broken. Used in skylight, window, flooring, etc.

• Double Glazed Units: These are made by providing air gap between two glass panes in order to reduce the heat loss and gain.
Normal glass can cause immense amount of heat gain and upto 30%of loss of heat of air conditioning energy. Green, energy
efficient glass can reduce this impact.

• Chromatic glass: This type of glass can control daylight and transparency effectively. These glass are available in three forms-
photochromatic (light sensitive lamination on glass), thermochromatic (heat sensitive lamination on glass) and electrochromatic
(light sensitive glass the transparency of which can be controlled by electricity switch.) It can be used in meeting rooms and ICUs

• Glass wool: Glass wool is a thermal insulation that consists of intertwined and flexible glass fibers, which causes it to "package"
air, and consequently make good insulating materials. Glass wool can be used as filler or insulators in buildings, also for
soundproofing.

• Glass blocks: Hollow glass wall blocks are manufactured as two separate halves and, while the glass is still molten, the two
pieces are pressed together and annealed. The resulting glass blocks will have a partial vacuum at the hollow center. Glass bricks
provide visual obscuration while admitting light
PLAIN & REINFORCED CONCRETE
SCOPE :
This Code deals with the general structural use of plain and reinforced concrete.

MATERIALS :
•CEMENT
The cement used shall be any of the following standards and the type selected should be appropriate for the intended use:
a) Ordinary Portland cement,
b) Rapid-hardening Portland cement,
c) Portland slag cement,
d) Portland pozzolana cement (fly ash based),
e) Portland pozzolana cement (calcined clay based),
f) Hydrophobic cement,
g) Low heat Portland cement, and
h) Sulphate resisting Portland cement.

•MINERAL ADMIXTURES
It is used along with ordinary Portland cement. Uniform blending of the additions with the cement should be ensured. For this purpose, specific facility
is required to be available at the construction site or RMC(Ready-Mix Concrete) plant.

•AGGREGATES
Aggregates, derived from natural sources and from other than natural sources, shall comply with the requirements of accepted standards.
, the nominal maximum size of the aggregate should usually be restricted to 5 mm less than the minimum clear distance between the main bars or 5
mm less than the minimum cover to the reinforcement whichever is smaller.

•WATER
o Water, natural or treated, used for mixing and curing shall be
clean and free from injurious amounts of oils, acids, alkalis,
salts, sugar, organic materials or other substances that may be
deleterious to concrete or steel.
o Potable water is generally considered satisfactory for mixing
concrete.
o Permissible limits for solids shall be as given in Table 1.
 • CHEMICAL ADMIXTURES
o Admixture, if used shall comply with accepted standards .
o Admixtures should not impair durability of concrete nor combine with the constituent to form harmful compounds nor increase the risk of corrosion
of reinforcement.
o The workability, compressive strength and the slump loss of concrete with and without the use of admixtures shall be established during the trial
mixes before use of admixtures.
o The relative density of liquid admixtures shall be checked for each drum containing admixtures and compared with the specified value before
acceptance.
•REINFORCEMENT
The reinforcement shall be any of the following conforming to the accepted standards:
a) Mild steel and medium tensile steel bars.
b) High strength deformed steel bars.
c) Hard-drawn steel wire fabric.
d) Structural steel of Grade A.
•CONCRETE The general environment to which the concrete will be exposed
The concrete shall be in grades designated as per Table 2. during its working life is classified into five levels of severity, that is,
mild, moderate, severe, very severe and extreme as described in
Table 3
 FEATURES OF FRESH SELF COMPACTING CONCRETE
The features of fresh SCC are:
a) Filling ability (Flow ability),
b) Passing ability,
c) Segregation resistance, and
d) Viscosity.

a) FILLING ABILITY (FLOW ABILITY)

Filling ability of SCC determines its ability to flow into and fill all spaces within the formwork, under its own weight. The filling ability is tested using
slump-flow test.
b) PASSING ABILITY (FREE FROM BLOCKING AT REINFORCEMENT)
It describes the capacity of the fresh mix to flow through confined spaces and narrow openings such as areas of congested reinforcement without
segregation. If there is little or no reinforcement, there may be no need to specify passing ability.
c) SEGREGATION RESISTANCE (STABILITY)
It is the ability of fresh concrete to remain homogeneous in composition while in its fresh state. Segregation resistance is generally carried out
using sieve test to check this property of fresh concrete.
d) VISCOSITY
It can be assessed by the V-funnel flow time. Concrete with a low viscosity will have a very quick initial flow and then stop. Concrete with a high
viscosity may continue to creep forward over an extended time.

GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATION

• AIM OF DESIGN
The aim of design is the achievement of an acceptable probability that structures being designed will perform satisfactorily during their intended
life. With an appropriate degree of safety, they should sustain all the loads and deformations of normal construction and use and have adequate
durability and adequate resistance to the effects of misuse and fire.
• METHODS OF DESIGN
Structure and structural elements shall normally be designed by Limit State Method. Account should be taken of accepted theories, experiment
and experience and the need to design for durability. Calculations alone do not produce safe, serviceable and durable structures. Suitable
materials, quality control, adequate detailing and good supervision are equally important.
• DURABILITY, WORKMANSHIP AND MATERIALS
It is assumed that the quality of concrete, steel and other materials and of the workmanship, as verified by inspections, is adequate for safety,
serviceability and durability
• DESIGN PROCESS
Design, including design for durability, construction and use in service should be considered as a whole. The realization of design objectives
requires compliance with clearly defined standards for materials, production, workmanship and also maintenance and use of structure in service.

PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
Prestressed concrete is a form of concrete used in construction . It is substantially prestressed during production, in a manne5r that strengthens
it against tensile forces which will exist when in services.
METHODS:
a. PRETENSIONING: Placing of concrete around reinforcing tendons that have been stressed to the desired degree.
b. POST- TENSIONING: Reinforcing tendons are stretched by jacks whilst keeping them inserted in voids left pre hand during curing of concrete.

SCOPE
This Code deals with the general structural use of prestressed concrete. It covers both work carried out on site and the manufacture of precast
prestressed concrete units.

STEEL
Steel is basically an alloy of iron and carbon with a small percentage of other metals such as nickel, chromium, aluminium , cobalt, etc.
There are many different types of steel classified on the basis of the type of metal used and the percentage content of the metal in the particular
type of steel.
SCOPE
• This Code covers the structural design aspects of steel structures in buildings.
• This Section applies to general construction using hot rolled steel sections and steel tubes joined using riveting, bolting and welding. Cold
formed light gauge steel sections, etc, are covered in separate standards.
• This Section covers the design by limit state method and plastic theory, and also enables design by working stress method.
• This Section gives only general guidance as regards to the various loads to be considered in design. For the actual loads, such as dead, live,
snow, wind and earthquake loads and load combinations to be used.
• Actual requirements may be further developed as per other standards or the project specification, the type of structure and the method of
construction.
TYPES OF STEEL:
• High carbon steel
• Mild steel
• Medium carbon steel
• Stainless steel
• High steel
• Cobalt steel
• Nickel chromium aluminium steel
• Chromium steel
UNITS
For the purpose of design calculations the following units are recommended:
a)Forces and loads, in kN, kN/m, kN/m2 ;
b) Unit mass, in kg/m3 ;
c) Unit weight, in kN/m3 ;
d) Stresses and strengths, in N/mm2 (MN/m2 or MPa); and
e) Moments (bending, etc), in kNm.
For conversion of one system of units to another system, accepted standard may be referred.

STANDARD DIMENSIONS, FORM AND WEIGHT

The dimensions, form, weight, tolerances of all rolled shapes, all rivets, bolts, nuts, studs, and welds and other members used in any steel structure
shall conform to accepted standards wherever applicable.

MATERIALS
The material properties given in this Section are nominal values, to be accepted as characteristic values in design calculations
STRUCTURAL STEEL
• The provisions in this Section are applicable to the steels commonly used in steel construction namely, structural mild steel and high tensile structural
steel.
• All the structural steel used in general construction, coming under the purview of this standard shall before fabrication conform to accepted standard .
• Structural steel other than those specified may also be used provided that the permissible stresses and other design provisions are suitably modified
and the steel is also suitable for the type of fabrication adopted.

PROPERTIES
Physical properties of structural steel irrespective of its grade may be taken as:
a) Unit mass of steel, ρ = 7 850 kg/m3
b) Modulus of elasticity, E = 2.0 × 105 N/mm2 (MPa)
c) Poisson ratio, µ = 0.3
d) Modulus of rigidity, G = 0.769 × 105 N/mm2 (MPa)
e) Coefficient of thermal expansion αt = 12 × 10 –6/°C’

Mechanical properties of structural steel is important in design are the yield stress, fy ; the tensile or ultimate stress, fu ; the maximum percent
elongation on a standard gauge length and notch toughness.
Commonly used properties for the common steel products of different specifications are summarized in Table 1.
THANK YOU