Physical Layer – Functions

 Physical layer in the OSI model plays the role of

interacting with actual hardware and signaling
mechanism.
 Physical layer is the only layer of OSI network model
which actually deals with the physical connectivity of
two different stations.
 This layer defines the hardware equipment, cabling,
wiring, frequencies, pulses used to represent binary
signals etc.
Physical layer provides its services to Data-link layer.
 Data-link layer hands over frames to physical layer.
Physical layer converts them to electrical pulses,
which represent binary data.
 The binary data is then sent over the wired or wireless
media.
 Data and Signals

• Computer networks are designed to transfer data from one point

to another.
• During transit data is in the form of electromagnetic signals.
• Hence it is important to study data and signals before we move

to further concepts in data communication.

 Data and Signals

Note

To be transmitted, data must be

transformed to electromagnetic signals.
Data and Signals
Data and Signals
Data and Signals
 DCN- Digital Signals…expanded

Data can be analog or digital. The term analog data

refers to information that is continuous; digital data
refers to information that has discrete states. Analog
data take on continuous values. Digital data take on
discrete values.
DCN- Digital Signals
DCN- Digital Signals
DCN- Digital Signals
Analog to Digital conversion
 3-2 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS
In data communications, we commonly use periodic
analog signals and nonperiodic digital signals.
Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or
composite. A simple periodic analog signal, a sine wave,
cannot be decomposed into simpler signals. A composite
periodic analog signal is composed of multiple sine
waves.
Topics discussed in this section:
 Sine Wave
 Wavelength
 Time and Frequency Domain
 Composite Signals
 Bandwidth
Figure 3.2 A sine wave
Figure 3.3 Two signals with the same phase and frequency,
but different amplitudes
Note

Frequency and period are the inverse of

each other.
Figure 3.4 Two signals with the same amplitude and phase,
but different frequencies
Table 3.1 Units of period and frequency
 Example 3.1

The power we use at home has a frequency of 60 Hz.

The period of this sine wave can be determined as
follows:
 Example 3.2

The period of a signal is 100 ms. What is its frequency in

kilohertz?

Solution
First we change 100 ms to seconds, and then we
calculate the frequency from the period (1 Hz = 10−3
kHz).
 Frequency
• Frequency is the rate of change with respect
to time.
• Change in a short span of time means high
frequency.
• Change over a long span of
time means low frequency.
Note

If a signal does not change at all, its

frequency is zero.
If a signal changes instantaneously, its
frequency is infinite.
Note

Phase describes the position of the

waveform relative to time 0.
Figure 3.5 Three sine waves with the same amplitude and frequency,
but different phases
 Example 3.3

A sine wave is offset 1/6 cycle with respect to time 0.

What is its phase in degrees and radians?

Solution
We know that 1 complete cycle is 360°. Therefore, 1/6
cycle is
Figure 3.6 Wavelength and period
Figure 3.7 The time-domain and frequency-domain plots of a sine wave
Note

A complete sine wave in the time

domain can be represented by one
single spike in the frequency domain.
 Example 3.7

The frequency domain is more compact and

useful when we are dealing with more than one
sine wave. For example, Figure 3.8 shows three
sine waves, each with different amplitude and
frequency. All can be represented by three
spikes in the frequency domain.
Figure 3.8 The time domain and frequency domain of three sine waves
Signals and Communication
 A single-frequency sine wave is not
useful in data communications
 We need to send a composite signal, a
signal made of many simple sine waves.
 According to Fourier analysis, any
composite signal is a combination of
simple sine waves with different
frequencies, amplitudes, and phases.
 Composite Signals and
Periodicity
 If the composite signal is periodic, the
decomposition gives a series of signals
with discrete frequencies.
 If the composite signal is nonperiodic, the
decomposition gives a combination of
sine waves with continuous frequencies.
 Example 3.4

Figure 3.9 shows a periodic composite signal with

frequency f. This type of signal is not typical of those
found in data communications. We can consider it to be
three alarm systems, each with a different frequency.
The analysis of this signal can give us a good
understanding of how to decompose signals.
Figure 3.9 A composite periodic signal
Figure 3.10 Decomposition of a composite periodic signal in the time and
frequency domains
 Example 3.5

Figure 3.11 shows a nonperiodic composite signal. It

can be the signal created by a microphone or a telephone
set when a word or two is pronounced. In this case, the
composite signal cannot be periodic, because that
implies that we are repeating the same word or words
with exactly the same tone.
Figure 3.11 The time and frequency domains of a nonperiodic signal
 Bandwidth and Signal
Frequency
 The bandwidth of a composite signal is
the difference between the highest and
the lowest frequencies contained in that
signal.
Figure 3.12 The bandwidth of periodic and nonperiodic composite signals
 Example 3.6

If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves

with frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz, what
is its bandwidth? Draw the spectrum, assuming all
components have a maximum amplitude of 10 V.
Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency,
and B the bandwidth. Then

The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100, 300, 500, 700,
and 900 Hz (see Figure 3.13).
Figure 3.13 The bandwidth for Example 3.6
 Example 3.7

A periodic signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest

frequency is 60 Hz. What is the lowest frequency? Draw
the spectrum if the signal contains all frequencies of the
same amplitude.
Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency,
and B the bandwidth. Then

The spectrum contains all integer frequencies. We show

this by a series of spikes (see Figure 3.14).
Figure 3.14 The bandwidth for Example 3.7
 Example 3.8

A nonperiodic composite signal has a bandwidth of 200

kHz, with a middle frequency of 140 kHz and peak
amplitude of 20 V. The two extreme frequencies have an
amplitude of 0. Draw the frequency domain of the
signal.

Solution
The lowest frequency must be at 40 kHz and the highest
at 240 kHz. Figure 3.15 shows the frequency domain
and the bandwidth.
Figure 3.15 The bandwidth for Example 3.8
 Example 3.9

An example of a nonperiodic composite signal is the

signal propagated by an AM radio station. In the United
States, each AM radio station is assigned a 10-kHz
bandwidth. The total bandwidth dedicated to AM radio
ranges from 530 to 1700 kHz. We will show the rationale
behind this 10-kHz bandwidth in Chapter 5.
 Example 3.10

Another example of a nonperiodic composite signal is

the signal propagated by an FM radio station. In the
United States, each FM radio station is assigned a 200-
kHz bandwidth. The total bandwidth dedicated to FM
radio ranges from 88 to 108 MHz. We will show the
rationale behind this 200-kHz bandwidth in Chapter 5.
 Example 3.11

Another example of a nonperiodic composite signal is

the signal received by an old-fashioned analog black-
and-white TV. A TV screen is made up of pixels. If we
assume a resolution of 525 × 700, we have 367,500
pixels per screen. If we scan the screen 30 times per
second, this is 367,500 × 30 = 11,025,000 pixels per
second. The worst-case scenario is alternating black and
white pixels. We can send 2 pixels per cycle. Therefore,
we need 11,025,000 / 2 = 5,512,500 cycles per second, or
Hz. The bandwidth needed is 5.5125 MHz.
Fourier Analysis

Note

Fourier analysis is a tool that changes a

time domain signal to a frequency
domain signal and vice versa.
Fourier Series
 Every composite periodic signal can be
represented with a series of sine and cosine
functions.
 The functions are integral harmonics of the
fundamental frequency “f” of the composite
signal.
 Using the series we can decompose any
periodic signal into its harmonics.
Fourier Series
Examples of Signals and the
Fourier Series Representation
Sawtooth Signal
Fourier Transform
 Fourier Transform gives the frequency
domain of a nonperiodic time domain
signal.
Example of a Fourier
Transform
Inverse Fourier Transform
Time limited and Band limited
Signals
 A time limited signal is a signal for which
the amplitude s(t) = 0 for t > T1 and t < T2
 A band limited signal is a signal for which
the amplitude S(f) = 0 for f > F1 and f < F2