MEC 216

Course Code:

Course Title: Thermal Engineering

Course Structure L:3 T:1 P:0 Credit:4

Course Instructor: Dr. Ravindra Jilte

School of Mechanical Engineering, Lovely Professional University
Unit III
Two important areas of application for thermodynamics are:
power generation and refrigeration.

Both are usually accomplished by systems that operate on a thermodynamic

cycle.

Thermodynamic cycles can be divided into two general categories:

power cycles and refrigeration cycles
The devices or systems used to produce a net power output
are often called engines, and the thermodynamic cycles they
operate on are called power cycles.

The devices or systems

used to produce a refrigeration effect are called refrigerators,
air conditioners, or heat pumps, and the cycles they operate
on are called refrigeration cycles
Thermodynamic cycles can also be categorized as
Gas cycles and vapor cycles, depending on the phase of the
working fluid.
Thermodynamic cycles can be categorized yet another
way: closed cycle and open cycles.
In closed cycles, the working
fluid is returned to the initial state at the end of the cycle
and is recirculated.

In open cycles, the working fluid is renewed at

the end of each cycle instead of being recirculated.

In automobile engines, the combustion gases are exhausted

and replaced by fresh air–fuel mixture at the end of each cycle.
The engine operates on a mechanical cycle, but the working
fluid does not go through a complete thermodynamic cycle.
Recall that heat engines that operate on a totally reversible cycle, such as
the Carnot cycle, have the highest thermal efficiency of all heat engines
operating between the same temperature levels.

That is, nobody can develop a cycle more efficient than the Carnot cycle.

If the Carnot cycle is the best possible cycle,

why do we not use it as the model cycle for all the heat engines instead of
bothering with several so-called ideal cycles?
Internally and Externally Reversible Processes

A process is called internally reversible if no irreversibilities

occur within the boundaries of the system during the process

A process is called externally reversible if no irreversibilities

occur outside the system boundaries during the process.
Heat transfer between a reservoir and a system is an externally
reversible process if the outer surface of the system is at the
temperature of the reservoir.
A process is called totally reversible, or simply reversible, if it involves
no irreversibilities within the system or its surroundings.
A totally reversible process involves no heat transfer through a finite temperature
difference, no nonquasi-equilibrium changes, and no friction or other dissipative effects.

Both processes are internally reversible, since both take place

isothermally and both pass through exactly the same
equilibrium states.

The first process shown is externally reversible

also, since heat transfer for this process takes place through an
infinitesimal temperature difference dT.

The second process, however, is externally irreversible,

since it involves heat transfer through a finite temperature
difference T.
heat engines are cyclic devices and that the working fluid of a heat engine returns to its initial
state at the end of each cycle.
Work is done by the working fluid during one part of the cycle and on the
working fluid during another part.

The difference between these two is the net work delivered by

the heat engine.

The efficiency of a heat-engine cycle greatly depends on how

the individual processes that make up the cycle are
executed.

The net work, thus the cycle efficiency, can be maximized by

using processes that require the least amount of work and
deliver the most, by using reversible processes.
Reversible cycles cannot be achieved in practice because the irreversibilities
associated with each process cannot be eliminated.

However, reversible cycles provide upper limits on the performance of real cycles.

Heat engines and refrigerators that work on reversible cycles serve as models to which
actual heat engines and refrigerators can be compared.

Reversible cycles also serve as starting points in the development of actual cycles and are
modified as needed to meet certain requirements.
Probably the best known reversible cycle is the Carnot cycle

The theoretical heat engine that operates on the Carnot cycle is called the Carnot heat
engine.
The Carnot cycle is composed of four reversible processes—two isothermal and
two adiabatic—and it can be executed either in a closed or a steady-flow
system.
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either a gas or a vapor can be utilized as the working fluid.
Reversible isothermal heat transfer is very difficult to achieve in reality
because it would require very large heat exchangers and it would take a very
long time (a power cycle in a typical engine is completed in a fraction of a
second).
Therefore, it is not practical to build an engine that would operate
on a cycle that closely approximates the Carnot cycle.
Two conclusions pertain to the thermal efficiency of reversible and irreversible (i.e., actual) heat engines, and they are
known as the Carnot principle

The efficiency of an irreversible heat engine is always less than

the efficiency
of a reversible one operating between the same two reservoirs.
Two conclusions pertain to the thermal efficiency of reversible and irreversible (i.e., actual) heat engines, and they are
known as the Carnot principle

The efficiencies of all reversible heat engines operating

between the
same two reservoirs are the same.
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A temperature scale that is independent of the properties of the substances that are used to measure
temperature is called a thermodynamic temperature scale.
Efficiency of Carnot heat engine

Carnot heat engine is the best known reversible engine. This is

the highest
efficiency a heat engine operating between the two thermal
energy reservoirs
at temperatures TL and TH can have
Efficiency of Carnot heat engine
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The thermal efficiencies of actual and reversible heat engines operating
between the same temperature limits
Reversible isothermal heat transfer is very difficult to achieve in reality
because it would require very large heat exchangers and it would take a very
long time (a power cycle in a typical engine is completed in a fraction of a
second). Therefore, it is not practical to build an engine that would operate
on a cycle that closely approximates the Carnot cycle
The real value of the Carnot cycle comes from its being a standard
against which the actual or the ideal cycles can be compared. The thermal
efficiency of the Carnot cycle is a function of the sink and source temperatures
only, and the thermal efficiency relation for the Carnot cycle
(Eq.

)
conveys an important message that is equally applicable to both
ideal and actual cycles:
Thermal efficiency increases with an increase
in the average temperature at which heat is supplied to the system or
with a decrease in the average temperature at which heat is rejected
from the system.
The source and sink temperatures that can be used in practice are not
without limits, however.

The highest temperature in the cycle is limited by

the maximum temperature that the components of the heat engine, such as
the piston or the turbine blades, can withstand.

The lowest temperature is limited by the temperature of the cooling medium

utilized in the cycle such
as a lake, a river, or the atmospheric air
AIR-STANDARD ASSUMPTIONS
AIR-STANDARD ASSUMPTIONS

considering that air is predominantly nitrogen

that undergoes hardly any chemical reactions
in the combustion chamber, the working fluid
closely resembles air at all times.
AIR-STANDARD ASSUMPTIONS

The actual gas power cycles are rather complex. To reduce the
analysis to a manageable level, we utilize the following
approximations, commonly known
as the air-standard assumptions:

1. The working fluid is air, which continuously circulates in a

closed loop and always behaves as an ideal gas.
2. All the processes that make up the cycle are internally
reversible.
3. The combustion process is replaced by a heat-addition
process from an external source
4. The exhaust process is replaced by a heat-rejection process
that restores the working fluid to its initial state.
Despite its simplicity, the reciprocating engine (basically a piston–cylinder
device) is one of the rare inventions that has proved to be very versatile and
to have a wide range of applications. It is
the powerhouse of the vast majority
of automobiles, trucks, light aircraft, ships, and electric power
generators, as well as many other devices.
Reciprocating engines are classified as spark-ignition (SI) engines or
compression-ignition (CI) engines,
depending on how the combustion process in the cylinder is initiated.
In SI engines, the combustion of the air–fuel mixture is initiated by a spark plug. In CI engines, the air–fuel
mixture is self-ignited as a result of compressing the mixture above its selfignition
temperature.
Reciprocating engines are classified as spark-ignition (SI) engines or
compression-ignition (CI) engines,
depending on how the combustion process in the cylinder is initiated.
In SI engines, the combustion of the air–fuel mixture is initiated by a spark plug. In CI engines, the air–fuel
mixture is self-ignited as a result of compressing the mixture above its selfignition
temperature.
the pressure in the cylinder is slightly above the atmospheric value during
the exhaust stroke and slightly below during the intake stroke
In two-stroke engines, all four
functions described above are The two-stroke engines are generally less efficient than their four-stroke
executed in just two strokes: the power
stroke and the compression stroke. However, they are relatively simple and inexpensive, and they have high
power-to-weight and power-to-volume ratios, which make them suitable for
applications requiring small size and weight such as for motorcycles, chain
saws, and lawn mowers
The thermodynamic analysis of the actual four-stroke or two-
stroke cycles described is not a simple task. However, the
analysis can be simplified significantly
if the air-standard assumptions are utilized. The resulting cycle,
which closely resembles the actual operating conditions, is the
ideal Otto cycle.
It consists of four internally reversible processes:
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant-volume heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Constant-volume heat rejection
The modified Otto cycle shown in Fig. is executed in an open system
during the intake and exhaust processes and in a closed system during the
remaining four processes.
Therefore, inclusion of the intake and
exhaust processes has
no effect on the net work output from
the cycle
the thermal efficiency of an ideal Otto cycle depends on the
compression ratio of the engine and the specific heat ratio of
the working fluid.
The thermal efficiency of the ideal Otto cycle increases with
both the compression ratio and the specific heat ratio.

This is also true for actual spark-ignition internal combustion

engines.
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that the thermal efficiency curve is rather
steep at low compression ratios but flattens out starting with a
compression
ratio value of about 8. Therefore, the increase in thermal
efficiency with the
compression ratio is not as pronounced at high compression
ratios.
 the air–fuel mixture rises above the autoignition temperature of the
fuel (the
temperature at which the fuel ignites without the help of a spark)
during the
combustion process, causing an early and rapid burn of the fuel at
some point
or points ahead of the flame front, followed by almost instantaneous
inflammation
of the end gas. This premature ignition of the fuel, called autoignition,
produces an audible noise, which is called engine knock.

The requirement that autoignition not be allowed

places an upper limit on the compression ratios that can be
used in sparkignition
internal combustion engines.
The ready
availability of high-octane fuels made it possible to raise the compression
ratios again in recent years. Also, owing to the improvements in other areas
(reduction in overall automobile weight, improved aerodynamic design, using
variable compression ratios by the use of a multi-link system, hybrid engines
that recover power lost during braking, individually controlled intake and
exhaust valves, etc.), today’s cars have better fuel economy and consequently
get more miles per gallon of fuel. This is an example of how engineering decisions
involve compromises, and efficiency is only one of the considerations
in final design.
the combustion process in the ideal Diesel cycle is approximated as a constant-pressure heat-addition process. only
process where the Otto and the Diesel cycles differ.
The remaining three processes are the same for both ideal cycles
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under the air-standard assumptions, the
efficiency of a Diesel cycle differs from the efficiency of an Otto cycle by
the quantity in the brackets. This quantity is always greater than 1. Therefore,
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diesel engines operate at much higher compression
ratios and thus are usually more efficient than the spark-ignition (gasoline)
engines.
The diesel engines also burn the fuel more completely since they
usually operate at lower revolutions per minute and the air–fuel mass ratio
is much higher than in spark-ignition engines.

The higher efficiency and lower fuel costs of diesel engines make them
attractive in applications requiring relatively large amounts of power, such
as in locomotive engines, emergency power generation units, large ships,
and heavy trucks.
A process is called totally reversible, or simply reversible, if it involves
no irreversibilities within the system or its surroundings.
A totally reversible process involves no heat transfer through a finite temperature
difference, no nonquasi-equilibrium changes, and no friction or other dissipative effects.

Both processes are internally reversible, since both take place

isothermally and both pass through exactly the same
equilibrium states.

The first process shown is externally reversible

also, since heat transfer for this process takes place through an
infinitesimal temperature difference dT.

The second process, however, is externally irreversible,

since it involves heat transfer through a finite temperature
difference T.
 The ideal Otto and Diesel cycles are composed
entirely of internally reversible processes and thus are
internally reversible cycles.

These cycles are not totally reversible, however, since

they involve heat transfer through a finite
temperature difference during the nonisothermal
heat-addition and heat-rejection processes, which are
irreversible.

Therefore,t he thermal efficiency of an Otto or

Diesel engine will be less than that of a Carnot
engine operating between the same
temperature limits.
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the T-s and P-v diagrams of the Stirling cycle,
made up of four totally reversible processes:
1-2 T = constant expansion (heat addition from the external source)
2-3 v = constant regeneration (internal heat transfer from the working fluid
to the regenerator)
3-4 T = constant compression (heat rejection to the external sink)
4-1 v = constant regeneration (internal heat transfer from the regenerator
back to the working fluid)
 all three cycles must have the same thermal efficiency when operating between the same
temperature limits:

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Stirling and Ericsson cycles are difficult to achieve in practice because they
involve heat transfer through a differential temperature difference in all
components including the regenerator.

In reality, all heat transfer processes take

place through a finite temperature difference, the regenerator does not have
an efficiency of 100 percent, and the pressure losses in the regenerator are
considerable.

Because of these limitations, both Stirling and Ericsson cycles

have long been of only theoretical interest
there is renewed interest
in engines that operate on these cycles because of their potential for higher
efficiency and better emission control.

The Ford Motor Company, General Motors Corporation, and the Phillips Research
Laboratories of the Netherlands
have successfully developed Stirling engines suitable for trucks, buses,
and even automobiles. More research and development are needed before
these engines can compete with the gasoline or diesel engines.
the Brayton cycle, which is made up of
four internally reversible processes:
1-2 Isentropic compression (in a
compressor)
2-3 Constant-pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine)
4-1 Constant-pressure heat rejection
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The two major application areas of gas-turbine engines are aircraft propulsion
and electric power generation.

When it is used for aircraft propulsion, the gas turbine produces just enough
power to drive the compressor and a small generator to power the auxiliary
equipment.
The high-velocity exhaust gases are responsible for producing the necessary
thrust to propel the aircraft.
Gas turbines are also used as stationary power plants to generate electricity
as stand-alone units or in conjunction with steam power plants on the
hightemperature side.

The gas-turbine cycle can also be executed as a closed cycle for use in nuclear
power plants. This time the working fluid is not limited to air, and a gas with
more desirable characteristics (such as helium) can be used.
The steadyflow compression or expansion work
is proportional to the specific volume
of the fluid. Therefore, the specific volume of
the working fluid should be as
low as possible during a compression process
and as high as possible during
an expansion process.

This is precisely what intercooling and reheating

accomplish.
The working fluid leaves the compressor at a
lower temperature, and the turbine at a higher
temperature, when intercooling and reheating
are utilized.

This makes regeneration more attractive since

a greater potential for regeneration
exists.

Also, the gases leaving the compressor can be

heated to a higher temperature before they
enter the combustion chamber because of the
higher temperature of the turbine exhaust.
Aircraft gas turbines operate on an open cycle called a
jet-propulsion cycle.

The ideal jet-propulsion cycle differs from the simple

ideal Brayton cycle in that the gases are not expanded
to the ambient pressure in the turbine.
gases are not expanded to a pressure such that
the power produced by the turbine is just
sufficient to drive the compressor and the
auxiliary equipment, such as a small generator
and hydraulic pumps.

the net work output of a jet-propulsion cycle

is zero.

The gases that exit the turbine at a relatively high

pressure are subsequently accelerated in a nozzle
to provide the thrust to propel the aircraft
Aircraft gas turbines operate on an open cycle
called a jet-propulsion cycle.

The ideal jet-propulsion cycle differs from the

simple ideal Brayton cycle in that the gases are
not expanded to the ambient pressure in the
turbine.

Instead, they are expanded to a pressure such

that the power produced by the turbine is just
sufficient to drive the compressor and the
auxiliary equipment, such as a small generator
and hydraulic pumps.

That is, the net work output of a jet-propulsion

cycle
is zero.

The gases that exit the turbine at a relatively high

pressure are subsequently accelerated in a nozzle
Aircraft gas turbines operate at higher
pressure ratios (typically between 10 and
25), and the fluid passes through a diffuser
first, where it is decelerated and its
pressure is increased before it enters the
compressor.
Aircraft are propelled by accelerating a
fluid in the opposite direction to motion.

This is accomplished by either

slightly accelerating a large mass of fluid
(propeller-driven engine)
or

greatly accelerating a small mass of fluid

(jet or turbojet engine)

Or

both (turboprop engine).

Basic components of a turbojet engine and the
T-s diagram for the ideal turbojet cycle.
The most widely used engine in aircraft propulsion is the
turbofan (or fanjet) engine wherein a large fan driven by
the turbine forces a considerable amount of air through a
duct (cowl) surrounding the engine,

The fan exhaust leaves the duct at a higher velocity,

enhancing the total thrust of the engine significantly.

A turbofan engine is
based on the principle that for the same power,
a large volume of slower moving
air produces more thrust than a small volume of
fast-moving air
As a general rule, propellers are more
efficient than jet engines, but they are limited to low-speed and
low-altitude operation since their efficiency decreases at high
speeds and altitudes.

The old propjet engines (turboprops) were limited to speeds of

about Mach 0.62 and to altitudes of around 9100 m.

The new propjet engines (propfans) are expected to achieve speeds

of about Mach 0.82 and altitudes of about 12,200 m.

Commercial airplanes of medium size and range propelled by

propfans are expected to fly as high and as fast as the planes
propelled by turbofans, and to do so on less fuel.