Introduction to Algebra

DEPT OF ECE Introduction to Algebra

 Fields Fields

Fields

DEPT OF ECE Introduction to Algebra SEPTEMBER 2020

 Fields Fields

A field is a set of elements in which addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division is

performed without leaving the set.
Addition and multiplication must satisfy the commutative, associative, and distributive
laws.
Definition:Let F be a set of elements on which two binary operations, called addition
“ + ” and multiplication“.”are defined. The set F together with the two binary operations
“ + ” and “ . ” is a field if the following conditions are satisfied:
1 F is a commutative group under addition + .
The identity element with respect to addition is called the zero element i.e., 0.
2 The set of nonzero elements in F is a commutative group under multiplication.
The identity element with respect to multiplication is called the unit element
3 i.e., 1.
Multiplication is distributive over addition; that is, for any three elements a, b, and
c in F,
a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c

These properties can, be satisfied if the field size is any prime number or any integer
power of a prime.

DEPT OF ECE Introduction to Algebra SEPTEMBER 2020

 Fields Fields

The number of elements in a field is called the order of the field.

A field with finite number of elements is called a finite field or Galois
Field, denoted by GF(p), p can be a prime number or power of
prime.
In a field, the additive inverse of an element a is denoted by −a and
the multiplicative inverse of a is denoted by a−1 provided that a ƒ=
0.
Subtracting a field element b from another field element a is defined
as adding the additive inverse −b of b to a. [a − b =∆a + (−b)].
If b is a nonzero element, dividing a by b is defined as multiplying a
by the multiplicative inverse b−1 of b . [a ÷ b =∆a · b−1)]

DEPT OF ECE Introduction to Algebra SEPTEMBER 2020

 Fields Fields

GF(2), p=2 GF(2)={0,1} is a binary set.

Modulo-2 addition for GF(2), additive identity: 0

Table: Modulo-2 addition

⊕ 0 1
0 0 1
1 1 0

Modulo-2 multiplication for GF(2),multiplicative identity: 1

Table: Modulo-2 multiplication

· 0 1
0 0 0
1 0 1

DEPT OF ECE Introduction to Algebra SEPTEMBER 2020

 Fields Modulo-3 addition

Table: Modulo-3 addition

Consider GF(3), p=3 GF(3)={0,1,2}. additive
identity is: 0, multiplicative identity is: 1 ⊕ 0 1 2
0 0 1 2
In GF(3), the additive inverse of 0 is 0, and the 1 1 2 0
additive inverse of 1 is 2 and vice versa. The 2 2 0 1
multiplicative inverse can be found by identifying
from the table pairs of elements whose product
is 1 . In the case of GF(3), we see that the
multiplicative inverse of 1 is 1 and the Table: Modulo-3 multiplication
multiplicative inverse of 2 is 2.
commutative, associative, and distributive · 0 1 2
0 0 0 0
Additive a+b=b+a 1+2=2+1=0 1 0 1 2
Associative a+ (b + c) =( a+ b)+ c = 0+ 1+ 2= 2 0 2 1

DEPT OF ECE Introduction to Algebra SEPTEMBER 2020

 Fields Modulo-7

GF(7), here p=7 GF(7)={0,1,2,3,4,5,6}. additive identity: 0,

multiplicative identity: 1

Table: Modulo-7 addition

⊕ 0
0 0 1 2 3 4 5 61
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 02
2 2 3 4 5 6 0 13
3 3 4 5 6 0 1 24
4 4 5 6 0 1 2 35
5 5 6 0 1 2 3 46
6 6 0 1 2 3 4 5

Table: Modulo-7 multiplication

· 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 6
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 0 2 4 6 1 3 5
3 0 3 6 2 5 1 4
4 0 4 1 5 2 6 3
5 0 5 3 1 6 4 2
6 0 6 5 4 3 2 1

DEPT OF ECE Introduction to Algebra SEPTEMBER 2020

 Fields Modulo-7

The addition table shown above is used also for subtraction. For
example , if we want to subtract 6 from 3 , we first use the
addition table to find the additive inverse of 6, which is 1.
Then we add 1 to 3 to obtain the result [ i.e., 3-6=3+(-6)=3+1=4].
For division, we use the multiplication table.
Suppose that we divide 3 by 2. We first find the multiplicative inverse
of 2, which is 4, and then we multiply 3 by 4 to obtain the result
,[i.e., 3 ÷ 2 = 3.(2−1) = 3.4 = 5].
For anyprime p, there exist a finite field of p elements.
For anypositive integer mit is possible to extend the prime field
GF(p) to a field of pm elements, which is called anextension fieldof
GF(p) and is denoted by GF (p m )

DEPT OF ECE Introduction to Algebra SEPTEMBER 2020

 Fields Modulo-7

Def: Primitive
In a finite field Gf(q), a nonzero element a is said to be primitive if
the order of a is q − 1
The powers of a primitive element generate all the nonzero elements
of GF(q).
Every finite field has a primitive element.
Primitive elements are useful for constructing fields.
Example. In GF(7) 3 is a primitive element.
31 = 3, 32 = 3.3 = 2, 33 = 3.32 = 6, 34 = 3.33 = 4, 35 = 3.34 = 5,
36 = 3.35 = 1
Therefore, the order of the integer 3 is 6, and the integer 3 is a primitive
element of GF(7),
41 = 4, 42 = 4.4 = 2, 43 = 4.42 = 1
Clearly, the order of the integer 4 is 3, which is factor of 6.

DEPT OF ECE Introduction to Algebra SEPTEMBER 2020

 Binary Field Arithmetic Binary Field Arithmetic

Binary Field
Arithmetic

DEPT OF ECE Introduction to Algebra SEPTEMBER 2020

 Binary Field Arithmetic Binary Field Arithmetic

Historical Notes

Galois fields are named in honor of the

French mathematician Evariste Galois (1811
1832)
who was killed in a duel at the age of 20.
On the eve of his death, he wrote a letter to
his friend in which he gave the results of
his theory of algebraic equations, already
presented to the Pairs Academy.

DEPT OF ECE Introduction to Algebra SEPTEMBER 2020

 Binary Field Arithmetic Binary Field Arithmetic

Remarks
1 Galois fields are important in the study of cyclic codes, a special class

of block codes. In particular, they are used for constructing the

well-known random error correcting BCH and Reed-Solomon Codes.
2 GF(2m ) is an extension field of GF(2).
3 Every Galois field of 2m elements is generated by a binary primitive
polynomial of degree m.

DEPT OF ECE Introduction to Algebra SEPTEMBER 2020

 Binary Field Arithmetic Binary Field Arithmetic

In general, we can construct codes with symbols from any Galois field
GF(q), where q is either a prime p or a power of p; however,codes with
symbols from the binary field GF(2) or its extension GF (2m ) are most
widely used in digital data transmission and storage systems.
In binary arithmetic, we use modulo-2 addition and multiplication .

DEPT OF ECE Introduction to Algebra SEPTEMBER 2020

 Binary Field Arithmetic Binary Field Arithmetic

Sets of equations e.g. X+Y=1, X+Z=0, X+Y+Z=1 Solved by Cramers

rule

11 0
. 1 0 1. = . 0 1 .− . 1 1 .+ . 1 0 .
. 1 1 . . 1 1 . . 1 1 .
. 1 . 1 0
= 11.1
1 1− 1.0 + 0.1
= 1

DEPT OF ECE Introduction to Algebra SEPTEMBER 2020

 Binary Field Arithmetic Binary Field Arithmetic

11 0
. 0 0 1 .
11 1 0
x= . = =
. 0 1
11 0
. 1 0 1 .
11 1 1
y= . = =
. 1 1
11 0
. 1
0 0 .
11 . 0
. 1 = =
z= ∆ 1
0

DEPT OF ECE Introduction to Algebra SEPTEMBER 2020

 Binary Field Arithmetic Binary Field Arithmetic

g (x ) = g0 + g1x + g2x + ... + g m x m m≤n

Added (or subtracted)
f (x )g (x ) = (f0 + g0 ) + (f1 + g1)x + ...(fm + g m )x m + f m + 1 x m +1 + ...(fn)xn
Multiplied
f (x ) · g (x ) = c0 + c1x + ... + c n + m x n + m
ci = f0gi + f1gi−1 + ... + fi g0(c0 = f0g0 c n + m = f n g m )
If g(x) = 0, then f(x) 0 = 0
iCommutative
f (x ) + g (x ) = g (x ) + f (x )
f (x ) · g (x ) = g (x ) · f (x )
iiAssociative
f (x ) + [g (x ) + h(x )] = [f (x ) · g (x )] + [f (x ) ·
h(x )]
f (x ) · [g (x ) · h(x )] = [f (x ) · g (x )] · h(x )]
iiiDistributive
f (x ) · [g (x ) + h(x )] = [f (x ) + g (x )] + h(x )]
f (x ) · [g (x ) · h(x )] = [f (x ) · g (x )] · h(x )]
DEPT OF ECE Introduction to Algebra SEPTEMBER 2020
 Binary Field Arithmetic Binary Field Arithmetic

Polynomials over GF(2). We denote it GF(2).

f (x ) = f0 + f1x + f2x 2 + ... +
f n x n where fi = 0 or for
1 0≤ i≤ n
The degree of a polynomial is the largest power of X with nonzero
coefficient.
if fn = 1, deg[f (x )] = n
if f1 = ...fn = 0, f0 = 1 deg[f (x )] = 0
A polynomial with coefficients from the binary field GF(2) is called a
binary polynomial.
e.g. 1 + x 2 and 1 + x 3 + x 5 are binary polynomials.
Polynomials over GF(2) with degree = 1 are x, 1 + x
Polynomials over GF(2) with degree = 2 are
x 2, 1 + x 2, x + x 2, 1 + x + x 2
In general, with degree = n we have 2n polynomials.
Polynomials over GF(2) can be added (or subtracted), multiplied, and
divided in the usual way.
DEPT OF ECE Introduction to Algebra SEPTEMBER 2020
 Binary Field Arithmetic Binary Field Arithmetic

Add a(x ) = 1 + x + x 3 + x 5 and b(x ) = 1 + x 2 + x 3 + x 4 + x 7

a(x ) + b(x ) = (1 + 1) + x + x 2 + (1 + 1)x 3 + x 4 + x 5 +

x7

For multiplication f(x) and g(x)

f (x ).g (x ) = c0 + c1X + c2X 2 + . . . + c n + m X n + m

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 Binary Field Arithmetic Binary Field Arithmetic

Divide f (x ) = 1 + x + x 4 + x 5 + x 6 by f (x ) = 1 + x + x 3 using
long division technique

x3+ x2
x 3 + x + 1)x 6 + x 5 + x 4 + x+ 1
x +6 x4+ x3
.........................................................
x5 + x3 + x+
1
x5 + x3 + x2

DEPT OF ECE Introduction to Algebra SEPTEMBER 2020 45 / 85

 Binary Field Arithmetic Binary Field Arithmetic

Suppose the degree of g(x) is not zero, and f(x) is divided by g(x)
then a pair of polynomials are obtained over GF(2)-q(x) called the
quotient, and r(x) called the remainder.
f(x)=q(x)g(x)+r(x)
The degree of r(x) is less than that of g(x)
When f(x) is divisible by g(x), if the remainder r(x) is identical to zero
[r(x)=0] then it is said that f(x) is divisible by g(x) and g(x) is a factor
of f(x)
p(x ) ∈ GF (2) [x] with deg[p(x)]=m is said to beirreducibleover
GF(2) if p(x) is not divisible by any polynomial over GF(2) of degree
less than m but greater than zero.
e.g. 1 + x + x 2 , 1 + x + x 3 , 1 + x 2 + x 5 and 1 + x + x 5
are irreducible polynomials.
For any positive integer m ≥ 1, there exists at least one irreducible
polynomial of degree m.
For a polynomial f(x), if the polynomial has an even number of terms,
it is divisible by x+1
DEPT OF ECE Introduction to Algebra SEPTEMBER 2020
 Binary Field Arithmetic Binary Field Arithmetic

For real numbers if a is root of a polynomial f(x) [f(a)=0]. f(x) is

divisible by x-a [x+a]

Consider f (x ) = 1 + X 2 + X 3 + X 4
f (1) = 1 + 12 + 13 + 1 4 =1+1+1+1=0 Thus f(x) has 1 as a root
, and it should be divisible by x+1
x3+ x2+ 1
x + 1)x 4 + x 3 + x 2 + 1
x4+ x3
.........................................................
x2 +
1
2 + x
.........................................................
x
x+ 1
x+ 1
.........................................................
0

DEPT OF ECE Introduction to Algebra SEPTEMBER 2020 47 / 85

 Binary Field Arithmetic Binary Field Arithmetic

Primitive
An irreducible polynomial p(x) of degree m is said to be primitive if
the smallest positive integer n for which p(x) divides x n + 1 is
n = 2m − 1.
p(x ) = x 4 + x + 1 divides x 15 + 1 but does not divide any x n + 1
for 1 ≤ n ≤ 15. Hence p(x ) = x 4 + x + 1 is primitive polynomial.
For a given m > 0, there may be more than one primitive polynomials
of degree n.
For example, 1 + x + x 4 is a primitive polynomial. The smallest
positive integer n for which 1 + x + x 4 divides x n + 1 is
n = 24 − 1 = 15

DEPT OF ECE Introduction to Algebra SEPTEMBER 2020

 Binary Field Arithmetic Binary Field Arithmetic

m Primitive Polynomial
3 1+ x+ x3
4 1+ x+ x4
5 1+ x2+ x5
6 1+ x+ x6
7 1+ x3+ x7
8 1+ x2+ x3+ x4+ x8
9 1+ x+ x9
10 1 + x + x 10
11 1 + x 2 + x 11
12 1 + x + x 4 + x 6 + x 12
13 1 + x + x 3 + x 4 + x 13

DEPT OF ECE Introduction to Algebra SEPTEMBER 2020

 Binary Field Arithmetic Binary Field Arithmetic

m−1
Any irreducible polynomial over GF(2) of degree m, divides x 2 + 1
3
x 3 + x + 1 divides x 2 −1 + 1 = x 7 + 1

x4+ x2+ x+ 1
x 3 + x + 1)x 7 + 1
x7 + x5 + x
.........................................................
4

x5 + x +
4

1
x5 + x3+ x2
.........................................................
x4+ x3 + x 2+ 1
x4 +

x2+ x
.........................................................
x3+ x+ 1
x3+ x+ 1
.........................................................
DEPT OF ECE Introduction to Algebra SEPTEMBER 2020 50 / 85
 Construction of Galois Field Construction of Galois Field

Construction of Galois Field GF

(2m)

DEPT OF ECE Introduction to Algebra SEPTEMBER 2020

 Construction of Galois Field
Construction of Galois Field

Consider two elements 0 and 1 from GF(2) and a new symbol α

Define multiplication “ . ”

0.0 = 0
0.1 = 0
1.0 = 0
1.1 = 1
0.α = α.0 = 0
1.α = α.1 = α
= α.α
α 2
= α.α.α
.
.
α 3.
α3
= α . α . . . . .α( j times)

0.α j = α j .0
= α j .1 = α j
α j .αi = α i +j
1. α j
α i .α j
The set of elements on which a multiplication “ . ” is
=
F = (0, 1, α , α 2 . . . α j . . .)

DEPT OF ECE Introduction to Algebra SEPTEMBER 2020

 Construction of Galois Field Construction of Galois Field

Let p(X) be positive polynomial of degree m over GF(2). Assume that p( α ) = 0 where p ( α ) is root of p(X)
m −1
Then p(X) divides X 2 + 1
m−1 (6)
X2 + 1 = q(x )p(x )

Replace X with α

m−1
α2 + 1 = q (α ) p ( α )

and p( α ) = 0
m−1
α2 + 1 = q(α).0

If we regard q( α ) as a polynomial of over α over GF (2) q(α).0 = 0

m−1
α2 + 1= 0

Adding 1 on both sides

m
α 2 −1 = 1

Therefore, under the condition that p ( α) = 0 the set F becomes finite .andmcontains the following elements:
∗ 2 . 2 −2
F = (0, 1, α , α , .α )

The nonzero elements of F ∗ are closed under the multiplication operation “ . ”

DEPT OF ECE Introduction to Algebra SEPTEMBER 2020

 Construction of Galois Field Construction of Galois Field

Construction of Galois Field

Let m=4. The polynomial p(x ) = 1 + x + x 4 is a primitive
polynomial over GF(2).
Set p(α) = 1 + α + α4 = 0, α4 = 1 + α. Using this relation GF (24)
is constructed.
α5 = α.α4 = α(1 + α) = α + α2,α6 = α.α5 = α(α + α2 ) = α2 + α3,α7
= α.α6 = α(α2 + α 3 ) = α3 + α4 = α3 + 1 + α = 1 + α + α3,To
multiply two elements αi ∗αj their exponents are added.α5 ∗α7 = α12,
α12 ∗α7 = α19For division αj , by αi , multiply αj by the multiplicative
inverse α15−i .Example. α4/α12 = α4 ∗α3 = α7
α12/α5 = α12 ∗ α10 = α22 = α7
To add αi and αj polynomial representation given in table is used.
Example. α5 + α7 = (α + α 2 ) + (1 + α + α 3 ) = 1 + α2 + α3 =
α13 1 + α5 + α10 = 1 + (α + α 2 ) + (1 + α + α 2 ) = 0

DEPT OF ECE Introduction to Algebra SEPTEMBER 2020 54 / 85

 Construction of Galois Field Construction of Galois Field

Power Polynomial 4−
representation Tuple representation
0 representation
0 (0000)
1 1 (1000)
α α (0100)
α2 (0010)
α2 (0001)
α4 α3 1+ α (1100)
α5
α
3 α + α2 (0110)
α6 α2 + α3 (0011)
α7 1 + α + α3 (1101)
α8 1 + α2 (1010)
α9 α + α3 (0101)
α10 1 + α2 + α3 (1110)
α11 α + α2 + α3 (0111)
α12 1 + α + α2 (1111)
+ α3
α13 1 + α2 + α3 (1011)
DEPT OF ECE α14 1 +to Algebra
Introduction α3 (1001)
SEPTEMBER 2020
 Construction of Galois Field Construction of Galois Field

Basic Properies of a Galois Field GF

(2m)

DEPT OF ECE Introduction to Algebra SEPTEMBER 2020

 Construction of Galois Field Construction of Galois Field

In ordinary algebra a polynomial with real coefficients has roots not from the field of real numbers but from the field of complex
numbers

X 2 + 6X + 25

does not have roots from the real numbers but has two complex conjugate roots

√
−6 ± 36 − 100
2

-3+4i and -3-4i

In case of polynomial with coefficients from GF (2) may not have roots from GF (2) but has roots from an extension field of
GF (2).
Consider X 4 + X 4 + 1 is irreducible over GF (2) and therefore it does not have roots from GF (2)
It has four roots which are α 7 , α 11 , α 1 3 , and α 1 4

( α 7 ) 4 + ( α 7 ) 3 + 1 = (1 + α 2 + α 3 ) + ( α 2 + α 3 ) + 1 = 0

DEPT OF ECE Introduction to Algebra SEPTEMBER 2020

 Construction of Galois Field Construction of Galois Field

α 7 , α 11 , α 1 3 and α 1 4 are the other roots of f (x )

(X + α 7 )(X + α 11 )(X + α 1 3 )(X + α 1 4 )

= [X 2 + ( α 7 + α 11 )X + α 1 8 ][X 2 + (α 1 3 + α 1 4 )X + α 2 7 ]
2
= (X + α 8 X + α 3 )(X 2
+ α 2 X + α1 2 ]
4 8 2 3
= X + (α + α )X + (α 1 2 + α 1 0 + α 3 )X 2 + (α 2 0 X + α 5 )X + α 1 5

= X 4+ X 3+ 1

(X + α 7 )(X + α 11 )(X + α 1 3 )(X + α 1 4 ) =

Theorem: Let f(x) be a polynomial with coefficients from GF(2). Let β be an element in an extension field of GF(2). If β is a
l
root of f(x), then for any l ≥ 0 β 2 is also root of f(x)
f (X ) = 1 + X 3 + X 4 + X 5 + X 6 has α 4
The conjugates of α 4 are
2 3
( α 4 )2 = α 8 , ( α 4 )2 = α 1 6 = α , ( α 4 )2 = α 3 2 = α 2

DEPT OF ECE Introduction to Algebra SEPTEMBER 2020

 Construction of Galois Field Construction of
Galois Field

Theorem 2.18 Let φ(X ) be the minimal polynomial of an element β in GF (2m ). Let e be the smallest integer such that
e e−
Y 1
β 2 = β. Then 2i
(X + β )
i =0

Consider a primitive polynomial f (x ) = x 3 + x + 1 ∈ GF (2)[x ] and let α be a root of f(x). Then the elements of
GF(8)
0=0, α 0 = 1, α 1 = α , α 2 = α 2 α 3 = α + 1, α 4 = α 2 + α α 5 = α 2 + α + 1, α 6 = α 2 + 1 (X − α)( X − α 2 )
(X − α 4 )

= (X 2 − X ( α + α 2 ) + α 3 )(X − α 4 )

= X 3 − X 2 ( α + α2 ) + X α3 − X 2 α4 − X ( α + α2 ) α4 − α7

= X 3 − X 2 ( α + α 2 + α 4 ) − X (α 5 + α 6 + α 3 ) − α 7

= X 3 − X 2 ( α + α 2 + α 4 ) − X (α 5 + α 6 + α 3 ) − α 7

= X 3 − X 2 ( α + α 2 + α 2 + α ) − X ( α 2 + α + 1 + α 2 + 1 + α + 1) − α 7

= X 3+ X + 1
Table: Minimal polynomial of the elements in GF (2 3 ) generated by f (x ) = X 4 + X + 1

Conjugate roots Minimal polynomial

0 M.(x) = x-0 = x
α0 = 1 M0 (x ) = x2 -1 = x + 1
α, α2 , α4 = 1 3 4 6 5
3 2
α3 , α6 , α5 = 1 M3 (x ) = (x − α )(x − α 3)(x − α ) = x + x + 1
M1 (x ) = (x − α) ( x − α )(x − α ) = x + x + 1

DEPT OF ECE Introduction to Algebra SEPTEMBER 2020

 Construction of Galois Field Construction of Galois Field

Consider a primitive polynomial f (x ) = X 4 + X + 1 and Galois Field GF (24 ) let β = α 3 . The conjugates of β are
2 3
β 2 = α 6 , β2 = α 1 2 , β2 = α 2 4 = α 9

The minimal polynomial polynomial of β = α 3 is then

= (X + α 3 )(X + α 6 )(X + α 1 2 )(X + α 9 )

= [X 2 + ( α 3 + α 6 )X + α 9 ][X 2 + (α 1 2 + α 9 )X + α 2 1 ]

= [X 2 + α 2 X + α 9 ][X 2 + α 8 X + α 6 ]

= X 4 + ( α 2 + α 8 )X 3
+ ( α 6 + α 1 0 + α 9 )X 2
+ (α 1 7 + α 8 )X + α 1 5
4 3 2
= X + X + X + X+ 1

Table: Minimal polynomial of the elements in GF (2 4 ) generated by f (x ) = X 4 + X + 1

Conjugate roots Minimal polynomial

0 M.(x) = x-0 = x
α0 = 1 M0 (x ) = x2 -1 = x + 1
α, α2 , α4 , α8 = 1 3 4 6 5 4
3 2
α 3 , α 6 , α 9 , α1 2 = 1 M3 (x ) = (x − α )(x − α )(x − 4 α ) = x + x + x + x+ 1
α 5 , α 10 M1 (x ) = (x − α) ( x −
x 2 α+ x)(x
+−1 α ) = x + x+ 1

α 7 , α 11 , α 13 , α 14
x4 + x3 + 1

2
Theorem 2.20 If β is primitive element of GF (2m ), all its conjugates β 2 , β 2 are also primitive elements of GF (2m )

DEPT OF ECE Introduction to Algebra SEPTEMBER 2020

 Thank You

DEPT OF ECE Introduction to Algebra SEPTEMBER 2020

References

S. Lin and J. Daniel J. Costello, Error Control Coding, 2nd ed. Pearson/Prentice Hall,
2004.

DEPT OF ECE Introduction to Algebra SEPTEMBER 2020