IIW Welding Practitioner

Module 2 - Materials and Their Behaviour

During Welding
1

Plan Carbon and Carbon Manganese Steels

Welding Carbon-manganese Steels

Introduction

Carbon-manganese steels (C-Mn) are the predominant structural steels in use in

large quantities, in a diverse range of applications, throughout the engineering
industry. The steels, produced as plates, sections and tubular products, are used in
buildings, bridges, pressure vessels, ships, off-highway vehicles and extensively in
the oil and chemical industries.

A common feature in most forms of construction is the high level of welding

employed, and the requirement for high integrity joints. The majority of the welding
procedures used involve arc welding, although steels can be joined by the full range
of welding processes including power beam, friction and forge processes.

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A common feature of all the steel grades that fall under the wide umbrella of C-Mn
structural steels is that their properties may be changed as a result of thermal
processing; specifically, in relation to welding, they may be hardened or softened by
the weld thermal cycle.

The consequence of this is that there is a change in mechanical properties in the

region of the fusion welded joint. Carbon-manganese steels vary in their weldability,
the ease with which a defect-free joint can be made. Increasing thickness, increasing
content of carbon and any other alloying elements and increasing impurity contents
(especially Sand P) generally have a detrimental effect on weldability.

This knowledge summary aims to cover briefly some of the major considerations
involved in the arc welding of structural steels, particularly with regard to the effects of
the possible change in properties of the welded joint.

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Weldability Of C-Mn Steels

The majority of C-Mn steels are readily welded. However, there are risks that the
welds could be susceptible to certain types of cracking.

Solidification cracking, hydrogen cracking and lamellar tearing (and reheat cracking in
low alloy steels) are all possible fabrication cracking mechanisms, given the relevant
combination of circumstances.

Most modern steel compositions give good resistance to these types of problem, but
in the case of hydrogen and solidification cracking, the welding procedure is very
important.

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The avoidance of hydrogen cracking is perhaps the most important consideration in
many structural steel applications.

Hydrogen pick-up is reduced as far as possible, and provision made to mitigate the
adverse effects, especially with increasing material thickness and carbon equivalent
(CE) value of the steel, for instance by consumable choice, the application of preheat
or the selection of an alternative process.

The carbon equivalent is used to characterise the effect of alloying elements on

hardenability, which, in its turn, affects hydrogen crack sensitivity. For example, the
International Institute for Welding (IIW) CE is given by the equation:

Mn (Mo + Cr + V) (Ni + Cu)

CE = C + + +
6 5 15

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The CE value represents the contribution of the composition to the hydrogen cracking
susceptibility of steel. The higher the CE value, the greater the risk of hydrogen
cracking.

Generally, steels with a CE value of <0.4 are not susceptible to heat affected zone
(HAZ) hydrogen cracking, as long as low hydrogen welding consumables and
processes are used.

The carbon equivalent is also used as a compositional characterising parameter for

other properties that may be linked to hardness, such as toughness and strength.

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Lamellar tearing and liquation cracking are two other forms of cracking that can
occur.

The former arises at the outer edge of the visible HAZ in wrought products when
elongated sulphide inclusions delaminate and the resulting cracks link up when high,
through-thickness stresses are imposed by, for instance, large fillet or T-butt welds.

The latter occurs at the prior austenite boundaries in the coarse-grained HAZ.
Lowering the sulphur content of the steel reduces the risk of these forms of cracking.

Solidification cracking occurs in weld metal and is caused when the weld bead in the
final stage of solidification has insufficient strength to withstand the contraction
stresses generated as the weld pool solidifies.

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Important factors that increase the risk of solidification cracking include insufficient
weld bead size and shape (a weld bead with a depth to width ratio of at least 0.5: 1 is
recommended to avoid cracking), welding under high restraint or welding with a
material with a high impurity content (especially Sand P).

The required mechanical properties of a welded joint can be achieved in C-Mn steels
with use of the appropriate consumables and heat input.

However, the complex nature of the structural changes that occur during the weld
thermal cycle does mean that care is needed in assessing properties such as heat
affected zone (HAZ) toughness.

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In-service degradation can lead to the incidence of strain ageing or stress corrosion
cracking in C-Mn steels in some applications. These types of problem are avoidable if
the correct precautions are taken, e.g. nitrogen in the form of FeN can be a cause of
strain age embrittlement, a phenomenon that can occur when steels are strained at
temperatures of -200°C, and can lead to brittle failure.

Strong nitride forming elements AI or Ti are added to the consumable to prevent the
formation of FeN and reduce the likelihood of this type of embrittlement. C-Mn steels
in sour service are controlled by specifying maximum hardness and carbon
equivalent values to remove the likelihood of sulphide stress corrosion cracking.

Caustic stress corrosion cracking can be avoided by performing a stress relief heat
treatment operation. This is often a mandatory requirement in the relevant application
Standards.

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Welding Processes For Joining C-Mn Steels

Arc Welding Processes And Consumables

The majority of joints in structural steel are made with arc welding processes. Some
of the most common arc welding processes are manual metal arc (MMA), metal
inert/active gas (MIG/MAG), tungsten inert gas (TIG) and submerged arc welding
(SAW).

Thin section, and/or low CE materials (relatively unalloyed) are normally readily
weldable without any preheat. However, when welding thicker section and/or higher
CE materials (more highly alloyed), there is a risk of hydrogen assisted cracking in
the HAZ.

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One of the most distinctive differences between the arc welding processes is the way
in which the molten weld pool is protected during welding. This is achieved by using
either a flux that forms a protective molten slag or a shielding gas.

For low section thickness and low CE materials, rutile flux coated electrodes may be
used for general fabrication work where good fracture toughness is not a
requirement.

For larger sections and/or higher CE steels, lower hydrogen processes may have to
be considered. For MMA welding, basic coated electrodes are often baked to remove
moisture and these electrodes can provide the lowest weld metal hydrogen
characteristics.

MIG/MAG and TIG welding, lower hydrogen processes that use shielding gases
rather than fluxes, are also very important.
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These processes lend themselves to mechanisation, and can help to improve
productivity levels. Cross-country pipeline materials such as the API 5L series are
frequently joined using cellulosic MMA consumables or automated TIG or MAG set-
ups for increased welding speeds.

With cellulosic flux coatings, hydrogen contents can be high and although the API 5L
series of steels are specifically designed to be highly resistant to hydrogen cracking,
care must be taken to ensure aspects such as preheat are considered.

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Other Welding Processes

Although used less frequently for general fabrication purposes, power beam welding
processes can be utilised to join C-Mn steels. Processes such as laser or electron
beam welding produce joints of very small overall dimension and HAZ, with very low
distortion, in one shot, often without the use of filler materials, and often produce a
stronger joint than the alternative fusion welding process.

However, joint preparation and fit up of the workpieces has to be accurate, and the
laser or electron beam alignment is crucial to weld soundness.

Postweld heat treatment must also be considered in many cases if the hardness of
the weld is a problem. The high cost of equipment is another disadvantage.

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Friction and forge welding processes can also be used to join C-Mn steels without the
use of filler materials.

Frictional heating in combination with pressure are used to form the joint. These
processes are often associated with the offshore, petrochemical, power generation,
automotive and railway industries.

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Welding of C-Mn Steel Products

Carbon and higher tensile structural steels are specified in European Standards EN
10025:2004 parts 1-5, EN 10028:2000, EN 10149:1996, EN 10225:2001 and EN
10210:2006 which have replaced BS4360:1990.

In general, the structural products consist of low carbon steels (up to 0.25%C) and
higher carbon steels (0.5-0.7%C) used as rail steel or reinforcing bar. The steels are
specified by tensile strength, although Charpy impact testing is often a requirement.

For general structural steels, a batch or cast is characterised by a tensile test and its
carbon equivalent value and any additional mechanical tests performed on that cast.

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However, for boiler or pressure vessel use, tests are made on each plate or section
prior to use. The steel's yield strength and toughness are improved by refinement of
the ferrite grain size.

Traditionally, this was achieved by normalising treatments, but now controlled rolling
or thermo - mechanical processing may be used to produce fine-grained steels in the
as­rolled condition. Requirements for welding focus on preheat specifications
necessary to avoid hydrogen induced cold cracking.

Higher strength structural steels are often referred to as high strength low alloy
(HSLA) or micro - alloyed steels, as they can contain elements such as Nb, V or Ti in
amounts up to 0.15%.

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These elements aid in refining the ferrite grain size or provide precipitation
strengthening mechanisms.

Steels such as these are used in highly stressed conditions, e.g. in offshore
structures, and usually have to meet additional requirements on standard structural
grades such as minimum toughness requirements and maximum hardness
requirements especially in the HAZ.

Quenched and tempered steels used in applications requiring high yield strengths
need extra care when it comes to weld procedures.

For applications such as submarine hull construction, earth moving equipment,

cranes and in offshore oil and gas wells, special care is taken over the electrode
drying procedures, preheat temperatures, heat input levels, postweld heat treatment
and postweld non-destructive testing.
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Examples of proprietary grade steels often supplied in the quenched and tempered
condition are RQT 501 and CORTEN A, and other grades are specified BS EN
10025:2004 part 1 & 6.

In pipeline applications, steels and welding procedures have been developed to

minimise the formation of martensite and consequent reductions in toughness.

Steels such as API 5L X60 have a maximum carbon content of 0.26%, and contain
alloy additions of V and Nb that promote a fine, tough acicular ferrite microstructure.

The critical operation in pipeline work is the manual stovepipe welding of girth welds
that join the lengths or pipe.

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Low heat input rates help keep fine microstructures, and electrodes alloyed with Mn
and Ni help to counteract dilution with the parent material.

Special care is taken to avoid hard microstructures in the HAZ of pipelines in sour
service to avoid sulphide stress corrosion cracking, and levels of sulphur and
phosphorus are kept to a minimum to avoid hydrogen pressure induced cracking
(HPIC) that can initiate at non-metallic inclusions within the steel.

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Mechanical Properties of C-Mn Steel Weldments

For the weld metal, the ferrite grain size (or effective grain size) is the most important
factor to consider with regard to mechanical properties. Reductions in ferrite grain
size lead to improvements in yield strength, and in toughness, as indicated by a
decrease in impact transition temperature.

In general, for C-Mn steels, the weld metal has a higher tensile and yield strength
than the equivalent plate material. The notch ductility of weld metal can be reduced
by the presence of primary ferrite or martensite, but is improved by the presence of
an acicular structure with an ideal structure consisting entirely of fine acicular ferrite.

Increasing the carbon or alloy content of the weld metal generally increases the
strength and hardness.

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For the HAZ, the yield and ultimate tensile strength are almost always higher than
those of the parent material. Fracture toughness and hardness are the two main
properties of interest.

The hardness depends on cooling rate and on the hardenability of the steel, which
can be correlated with the carbon equivalent (CE). Carbon equivalents are often used
in the specifications for structural steels to minimise the risk of excessive hardness
and the possibility of hydrogen cracking.

The hardening of the HAZ can have a significant embrittling effect, and for some
applications it is necessary to monitor toughness using Charpy V-notch or crack-tip
opening displacement (CTOD) tests.

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It is generally a requirement that a welding procedure is qualified and then followed to
ensure that the weld will be completed satisfactorily, and that the joint properties
obtained are appropriate for the needs of the particular application. Guidance for
such procedure qualification is given in BS EN 288:1992.

Microstructure And Microstructural Changes During Welding of C-Mn Steels

C-Mn steels consist of a ferrite-pearlite microstructure that is formed during slow

cooling from the austenite range.

During the cooling process, ferrite containing a small amount of carbon in solid
solution is precipitated, leaving austenite grains that are enriched in carbon as the
temperature falls.

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At 723°C (the lower critical temperature) the residual austenite which has been
enriched to contain -0.8% C, transforms into pearlite, a laminated mixture of ferrite
and cementite (Fe 3 C), leaving a microstructure consisting of intermingled grains of
ferrite and pearlite.

During welding processes, the cooling rate is generally more rapid than that which
would result in ferrite-pearlite structures, the austenite to ferrite transformation
temperature is depressed, and there is a tendency to form phases that involve much
shorter movements of carbon atoms.

Bainitic or martensitic lath structures, rather than equiaxed grains, may form. It is
structures such as these that are responsible for the hardening of the material at the
welded joint, and can lead to a change in properties.

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The transformation products are harder and more brittle the lower the transformation
temperature and the higher the carbon content of the steel. Cooling rates in fusion
welding increase as the heat input rate decreases, but can be reduced by increasing
preheat temperatures.

A range of differing microstructures is formed relative to the position of the weld as

the weld metal and heat affected zone (HAZ) structures form under conditions of
continuous cooling.

The changing of microstructure with position produces a range of differing properties

within the weldment, and therefore affects the overall strength, toughness and
susceptibility to corrosion of the joint.

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In the HAZ of the parent plate, the thermal cycle of welding influences the
microstructure.

The HAZ of a fusion weld in steel can be divided into three zones: the supercritical
(i.e. peak temperature greater than the upper critical temperature, fully austenitic
range), intercritical (peak temperature between upper and lower critical temperature)
and subcritical (peak temperature less than lower critical temperature).

The supercritical zone can also be divided into a grain-coarsened and a grain-refined
region.

Grain growth occurs where the peak of the weld thermal cycle exceeds the grain
coarsening temperature for the steel being welded; below this temperature, the cycle
produces a grain size smaller than that of the parent.

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For any given steel, the higher the heat input, and hence the longer the time above
the grain growth temperature, the larger the resultant grain size in the grain­coarsened
region.

Large grain sizes can reduce the toughness of the joint, and in some cases if the
temperature is high for a long enough period, solution and re - precipitation of
sulphides can embrittle the coarse-grained region.

The type of microstructure within the grain-coarsened region depends on the carbon
and alloy content, the presence and influence of any second phase particles, the
grain size and the cooling rate.

Low carbon steels and low cooling rates produce primary ferrite and a ferrite/pearlite
or ferrite/bainite structure. With higher cooling rates and higher carbon contents, the
austenite grains transform to bainitic or martensitic structures.
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The coarser the original austenite grains then the coarser the resulting
microstructure. Coarse austenite grains also result in harder microstructures.

Hard HAZ microstructures can cause problems, particularly in the oil and gas industry
where maximum HAZ hardness specifications need to be followed in order to avoid
the risk of stress corrosion cracking.

At greater distances from the weld fusion line, lower peak temperatures and cooling
rates are experienced within the HAZ.

The grain-refined HAZ often has a range of microstructures with the outside similar to
a normalised steel. In the intercritical zone, partial transformation may take place, and
can result in hard bainite or martensite grains embedded in a relatively soft ferrite
matrix.

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However, this type of structure is not usually found to cause many problems. The sub
critical zone does not normally undergo any observable change, apart from some
spheroidisation of the pearlite.

Microstructural changes that cannot be seen in the optical microscope, including fine
precipitation of nitrides or carbon nitrides, can reduce impact transition temperatures.

Within the weld metal, factors such as cooling rate, composition, presence of non-
metallic intergranular nucleants for the formation of ferrite and plastic strain can all
affect the microstructure.

The major micro structural constituents of C-Mn steel welds are a mixture of primary
ferrite, lamellar ferrite, acicular ferrite (intergranular ferrite), ferrite-carbide
aggregates, bainite and martensite.

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Generally, the best mechanical properties are obtained with high proportions of fine
acicular ferrite, whereas lamellar structures and coarse primary ferrite are less
desirable.

Multipass welds increase the range of microstructures present in fusion welded steel
joints because new HAZs are formed in previously deposited weld metal and in
previously formed HAZs.

Coarse grains can be refined, and fine grains can be coarsened, but generally the
effect of multipass welding is beneficial in reducing hardness and improving notch
ductility.

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Effect Of Gaseous Elements During Welding Of C-Mn Steels

Steelmaking practices have been developed to improve the quality of the steel by
reducing the levels of dissolved gases such as oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen, as
well as the elements sulphur and phosphorus, which would otherwise lead to high
levels of porosity and segregation.

C-Mn steels are usually deoxidised with the addition of silicon to the melt, the term
'killing' referring to its use. In more recent years, and for more critical components,
aluminium is used to kill the steel with the added benefits of refining the grain size
and reducing the propensity to strain ageing.

Other techniques such as vacuum degassing are used to improve cleanliness and
lower the levels of segregation further for higher quality steels.

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For weld metal, the gases nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen have a generally
unfavourable effect on weld metal properties, and shielding methods are used during
welding to minimise their ingress and their effects. In the case of C-Mn steels, the
effects of nitrogen and oxygen are the most important.

Excess nitrogen in the weld metal may cause porosity or may embrittle the weld
deposit. Porosity is controlled by using rutile or cellulosic electrodes, by adding -1%
AI to the consumable in self-shielded welding, by using a short arc length in low
hydrogen rods or by the maintenance of efficient gas shielding.

The strong nitride forming elements AI or Ti are added to the consumable to prevent
the formation of FeN and reduce the likelihood of strain age embrittlement.

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Oxygen can be dissolved directly in the steel by reaction with slag or an oxygen-
containing gas. It can oxidise alloying elements and can cause the formation of non-
metallic inclusions.

Si and Mn are the most commonly used deoxidants in arc welding of steels, and are
usually effective in most applications. Reactions between the slag and liquid weld
metal depend on the slag basicity.

Generally, the more basic a slag the greater the reduction in oxygen content of the
weld. Incorporating stable TiO2 into the flux can result in lower oxygen contents for a
given basicity. Neutral or non-active fluxes, as opposed to active fluxes containing
deoxidants, are sometimes used if there is a concern about the final composition of
the weld metal.

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Concluding Remarks

Hydrogen does not often cause porosity problems for C-Mn steels; however, it can
have serious consequences for weldability and, as noted earlier, the avoidance of
hydrogen cracking is a major consideration for structural steels.

Despite the potential problems, C-Mn steel fabrications can generally be welded
successfully, as long as the steel composition is known, appropriate precautions are
taken and qualified procedures are followed.

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Preheating

In some welding operations, it is necessary to apply heat to the assembly before

starting the welding. In others, a postheat - or application of heat after welding - is
needed to relieve the internal stresses that have been developed.

With certain weldments, heat may also be applied between welding passes to
maintain a required temperature.

Each of these applications of heat has a bearing on the quality of weld or the integrity
of the finished weldment, and, in code work, control of temperature before, during,
and after welding may be rigidly, specified.

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Preheating - When And Why

Preheating is used for one of the following reasons:

To reduce shrinkage stresses in the weld and adjacent base metal - especially
important with highly restrained joints.

To provide a slower rate of cooling through~ the critical temperature range (about
890°C to 740°C), preventing excessive hardening and lowering ductility of both the
weld and heat-affected area of the base plate.

To provide a slower rate of cooling through 220°C range, allowing more time for any
hydrogen that is present to diffuse away from the weld and adjacent plate to avoid
underbead cracking.

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Figure: 1 – A main purpose of preheat is to slow down the cooling rate. As the insets
show, there is a greater temperature drop in one second at a given temperature (T1)
when the initial temperature of the plate is 40°C than when the initial temperature is
167°C. In other words, the cooling rate is slower when preheat is used.

36
As suggested by the above, a main purpose of preheat is to slow down the cooling
rate - to allow more "Time at Temperature," as illustrated in Fig. 1. Thus, the amount
of heat in the weld area as well as the temperature is important.

A thick plate could be preheated to a specified temperature in a localized surface area

and yet the heating be ineffective because of rapid heat transfer away from the heated
area.

Such preheating does not effectively reduce the cooling rate. Having a thin surface
area at a preheat temperature is not enough if there is a mass of cold metal beneath it
into which the heat can rapidly transfer.

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Because of the heat-absorption capacity of a thick plate, the heat-affected zone and
the weld metal after cooling may be in a highly quenched condition unless sufficient
preheat is provided.

What really matters is how long the weld metal and adjacent base metal is maintained
in a certain temperature range during the cooling period. This, in turn depends on the
amount of heat in the assembly and the heat transfer properties of the material and its
configuration.

Without adequate preheat, the cooling could be rapid and intolerably high hardness
and brittleness could occur in the weld or adjacent area.

Welding at low ambient temperatures or on steel brought in from outside storage on

cold winter days greatly increases the need for preheat. It is also true that preheating
rids the joint of moisture, but preheating is usually not specified for that purpose.
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The Amount Of Preheat Required

The amount of preheat required for any application depends on such factors as base
metal chemistry, plate thickness, restraint and rigidity of the members, and heat input
of the process.

Unfortunately, there is no method for metering the amount of heat put into an
assembly by a preheat torch.

The best shop approach for estimating the preheat input is a measure of the
temperature at the welding area by temperature-indicating crayon marks or pellets.

39
These give approximate measures of temperature at the spots where they are placed.
These measurements are taken as indices of the heat input and should be correlated
with thickness of metal and chemistry of metal in tables specifying minimum preheat
temperatures.

Thus, temperature is the gauge to preheat inputs, and preheating to specified

temperatures is the practical method of obtaining the correct amount of preheat
needed to control the cooling rate after welding.

There are various guides which may be used to estimate preheat temperatures,
including the recommendation of steel manufacturers. No guide, however, can be
completely and universally applicable because of the varying factors of rigidity and
restraint in assemblies. Recommendations are, thus, presented as "minimum preheat
recommendations," and they should be accepted as such.

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Table 1: Minimum Preheat and Interpass Temperature. (Degrees C)
Welding Process
SMAW with other than Low- SMAW with Low-Hydrogen Electrodes; SAW; GMAW; or SMAW with Low-
Hydrogen Electrode FCAW Hydrogen Electrodes;
SAW with Carbon or
Alloy Steel Wire, Neutral
Flux, GMAW; or FCAW

ASTM A364, A53 Gr. B, A106, ASTM A36, A106, A131, A139, A242
A131, A139, A375, A381 Gr. Weldable Grade, A375, A381, Gr. Y35,
Y35, A500, A501, A516 Gr. 55 A441, A516 Gr. 65 and 70, A524, A529,
Thickness of and 60, A524, A529, A570 Gr. A537 Class 1 and 2, A570 Gr. D and E, ASTM
Thickest Part at D and E, A573 Gr. 65, API 5L A572 Gr. 42, 45, 50, A573 Gr. 65, A588, A572
Point of Welding Gr. B; ABS Gr. A, B, C, CS, D, A618, API 5L Gr. B and 5LX Gr. 42; ABS Grades 55,
(mm) E, R Gr. A, B, C, CS, D, E, R, AH, DH, EH 60 and 65 ASTM A514, A517
19mm None3 None3 28°C 28°C

19 to 38mm 83°C 28°C 83°C 69°C

38 to 64mm 125°C 83°C 125°C 97°C

64mm 167°C 125°C 167°C 125°C

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1 Welding shall not be done when the ambient temperature is lower than zero C.
When the base metal is below the temperature listed for the welding process being
used and the thickness of material being welded, it shall be preheated (except as
otherwise provided) in such manner that the surfaces of the parts on which weld
metal is being deposited are at or above the specified minimum temperature for a
distance equal to the thickness of the part being welded, but not less than 75mm.,
both laterally and in advance of the welding.

Preheat and interpass temperatures must be sufficient to prevent crack formation.

Temperature above the minimum shown may be required for highly restrained
welds. For quenched and tempered steel the maximum preheat and interpass
temperature shall not exceed 222°C for thickness up 38mm., inclusive, and 250°C
for greater thicknesses. Heat input when welding quenched and tempered steel
shall not exceed the steel producer’s recommendation.

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2 In joints involving combinations of base metals, preheat shall be as specified for
the higher strength steel being welded.

3 When the base metal temperature is below 18°C , preheat the base metal to at
least 40°C and maintain this minim m temperature during welding.

4 Only low-hydrogen electrodes shall be used for welding A36 steel more than
25mm thick.

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The American Welding Society and the American Institute of Steel Construction have
established minimum preheat and interpass temperature requirements for common
weldable steels, as shown in Table 1.

While material thickness, ranges of metal chemistry, and the welding process are
taken into account in the minimum requirements, some adjustments may be needed
for specific steel chemistry, welding heat input, joint geometry, and other factors.

Generally, the higher the carbon content of a steel, the lower the critical cooling rate
and the greater the necessity for preheating and using low­hydrogen electrodes.

Carbon, however, is not the only element that influences the critical cooling rate.
Other elements in the steel are responsible for the hardening and loss of ductility that
occur with rapid cooling.

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Total hardenability is thus a factor to be considered when determining preheat
requirements. Total hardenability can be expressed in terms of a "carbon equivalent",
and this common measure of the effects of carbon and other alloying elements on
hardening can be the basis for preheat and interpass temperature estimates.

Carbon equivalents (Ceq) are empirical values, determined by various carbon-

equivalent formulas that represent the sum of the effects of various elements in steel
on its harden ability.

The International Institute of Welding (IIW) carbon equivalent equation is:

% Mn % Ni % Mo % Cr % Cu %V
Ceq = % C + + + + + +
6 15 5 5 15 5

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This formula is valid only if the alloy contents are less than the following:

0.50% C 3.50% Ni 1.00% Cr

1.60% Mn 0.60% Mo 1.00% Cu

Approximate preheat and interpass temperatures, based on carbon-equivalent values

for steels, are:

Ceq up to 0.45% preheat is optional

Ceq = 0.45 to 0.60 % 110°C to 222°C
Ceq over 0.60% 222°C to 390°C

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These temperatures are only approximate and are expressed in broad ranges. The
carbon-equivalent method of arriving at a preheat range has utility largely when
working with steels of unusual chemistries, when the alloy contents fall within the
limits specified for the particular formula.

Once the carbon-equivalent of such a steel has been determined, it can be correlated
to a steel listed with a similar carbon-equivalent to judge the effects of plate thickness
and the welding process in narrowing the preheat-temperature range.

Whatever the method used to estimate preheat temperature, the value obtained
should be confirmed by welding tests on simulated or actual assemblies before it is
committed to production welding.

Only then can the effects of restraint and welding heat input be taken into account.

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Theoretically, it is possible to reduce the preheat temperature requirement below the
value listed in preheat tables when using welding currents in the high range of the
procedures for semiautomatic and automatic processes.

The justification for this is that the welding heat input is likely to be much higher than
anticipated by the preheat recommen­dations.

In such cases, heat losses from the assembly might more than be balanced by the
welding heat input, bringing the affected metal up to or beyond the minimum preheat
and interpass recommendations before it starts to cool.

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The heat input during welding for a specific welding procedure is readily calculated by
the formula:
EI60
J=
V100

Where:

J = Heat input in kilojoules/mm

E = Arc voltage in volts
I = Welding current in amperes
V = Arc speed in mm/sec

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