Electronics Circuit and Devices EDC:132

Ajay Singh Raghuvanshi

List of Books for course

Text Book :
Integrated Electronics Millmann Halkians Microelectronics Sedra Smith Op-Amps and Linear Integrated Circuits Ramakant A. GayakwardReference Books

Reference Books
Electronic devices and Circuit TheoryBoylestad Nashelsky Electronic devices and Circuit TheoryJ Cathey

Conductor, Insulator, Semiconductor

The term conductor is applied to any material that will support a generous flow of charge when a voltage source of limited magnitude is applied across its terminals. An insulator is a material that offers a very low level of conductivity under pressure from an applied voltage source. A semiconductor, therefore, is a material that has a conductivity level somewherebetween the extremes of an insulator and a conductor.

Band Theory of Conduction

Intrinsic Semiconductor
Intrinsic materials are those semiconductors that have been carefully refined to reduce the impurities to a very low level essentially as pure as can be

Extrinsic Semiconductor
A semiconductor material that has been subjected to the doping process is called an extrinsic semiconductor.(one part in 10 million) Depending upon the doping agent weather a pentavalent or trivalent we can have two types of extrinsic semiconductors ie n-type or p-

N-Type Semiconductor
The n-type is created by introducing those impurity elements that have five valence electrons (pentavalent), such as antimony, arsenic, and phosphorus. Diffused impurities with five valence electrons are called donor atoms

P-Type Semiconductor
The p-type material is formed by doping a pure germanium or silicon crystal with impurity atoms having three valence electrons.ie. Trivalent. The elements most frequently used for this purpose are boron, gallium, and indium The diffused impurities with three valence

 N-type Majority Carrier are electrons and minority carrier are holes

Majority Carriers and Minority Carriers

P-Type Majority Carrier are holes and minority carrier are electrons

Semiconductor Diode
The semiconductor diode is formed up by simply bringing ntype and p-type materials together. At the instant two material are joined, the electron and holes in the region of the junction will combine, resulting in lack of carriers in the region near the junction.

p-type Acceptor n-type ions ID=0mA

+ Depletion Donar ions Region

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ++ + + + + + ++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ++ + + + VD=0V (no bias)

The p side of a pnjunction has trivalent atoms with a core charge of + 3 . This core attracts electrons less than a + 5 core . Abrupt junction

Energy

Conduction band Valence band P - side N - side

In an abrupt junction , the p side bands are at a slightly higher energy level . Real diodes have a gradual change from one material to the other . The abrupt junction is conceptual .

ergy bands after the depletion layer has form

Conduction band

Energy

Energy hill Valence band

P - side

N - side

To an electron trying to diffuse across the junction , the path it must travel looks like an energy hill . It must receive the extra energy from an outside source .

Junction temperature
The junction temperature is the temperature inside the diode, right at the pn junction. When a diode is conducting, its junction temperature is higher than the ambient. There is less barrier potential at elevated junction temperatures. The barrier potential decreases by 2 mV for each degree Celsius rise.

Forward Biased Diode

The carriers move toward the junction and collapse the depletion layer .

If the applied voltage is greater than the barrier potential , the diode conducts .

Reverse Biased Diode

The carriers move away from the junction .

The depletion layer is re - established and the diode is off .

I-V CHARACTERISTIC OF DIODE

iD
Reverse breakdown region

Reverse bias region

_V Z V
Complete i-v curve of a semiconductor diode

Forward bias region

vD
+ vD _

iD

i D = I d I 0 = I 0 e qv

kT

I 0 typically very small (10-9 to 10-15 A)

Diode DC VI Characteristic
3 6

Forward Current (mA)

3 0 2 4 1 8 1 2 6 0

i D = I d I 0 = I 0 e q v

kT

-0 0 -0 7 -0 5 -0 2 0 0 0 2 0 5 0 7 0 0 0 2 0 5 .5 0 .3 5 .2 0 .1 5 .0 0 .1 5 .2 0 .3 5 .5 0 .6 5 .7 0

Forward Voltage (volts)

Is = 10 fA ;

T = 27 C ;

n = 1

DIODE EQUATION
i D = I d I 0 = I 0 e qv
I : I0 : q : T : vd : k :

kT

Current through diode in Amps The diodes Saturation Current value electron charge, 1.602 x 10-19 C Temperature in degrees Kelvin Applied voltage in volts Boltzmans constant, 1.380 x 10-23 J/K

Bulk resistance
With forward bias, diode current increases rapidly beyond the knee voltage. Small increases in voltage cause large increases in current. The ohmic resistance of the p and n material is called the bulk resistance. The bulk resistance is often less than one Ohm.

Diode ratings
The maximum reverse bias rating must not be exceeded. The maximum forward current rating must not be exceeded. The power rating of a diode is determined by its maximum current rating and the forward voltage drop at that current flow. P m ax = Vm ax Im ax

Diode first approximation

This models the diode as being ideal. The first approximation ignores leakage current, barrier potential and bulk resistance. When an ideal diode is forward biased, the model is a closed switch. When an ideal diode is reverse biased, the model is an open

Diode second approximation

This model assumes that no diode current flows until the forward bias across the diode reaches 0.7 volts. This model ignores the exact shape of the knee. This model ignores the diodes bulk resistance.

Diode third approximation

This model assumes that no diode current flows until the forward bias across the diode reaches 0.7 volts. This model ignores the exact shape of the knee. This model does account for the diodes bulk resistance.

Third approximation

0.7 V

RB

Reverse bias
0.7 V RB

Forward bias

Which approximation?
The first approximation is often adequate in high voltage circuits. The second approximation is often adequate in low voltage circuits. The third approximation improves accuracy when the diodes bulk resistance is more than 1/100 of the Thevenin

Silicon diode ohmmeter testing

Low resistance in both directions: the diode is shorted. High resistance in both directions: the diode is open. Relatively low resistance in the reverse direction: the diode is leaky. The ratio of reverse resistance to forward resistance is >

How to find bulk resistance

200

Forward current in mA

175 150 125 100 75 50 25 0 0 0.5 1 .0 1 .5 Forward bias in volts = 1 . 25 RB = 0 . 875 V - 0 . 75 V 175 mA - 75 mA

200

Forward current in mA

175 150 125 100 75 50 25 0 0 0.5 1 .0 1 .5

RF

0 . 875 V 175 mA 5

RF

0 . 75 V 75 mA 10

Forward bias in volts

The forward resistance decreases as current increases.

Silicon diode resistance

The reverse resistance is very high: typically tens or hundreds of megohms. The forward resistance is not the same as the bulk resistance. The forward resistance is always greater than the bulk resistance. The forward resistance is equal to the bulk resistance plus the effect of the barrier potential.

R S = 10 VS = 1.5 V

circuit like this can be solved in several wa Use the first approximation . Use the second approximation . Use the third approximation . Use a circuit simulator . Use the diode s characteristic curve .

R S = 10 VS = 1.5 V

the characteristic curve is a graphical solu ind the saturation current using Ohm s Law . he cutoff voltage is equal to the supply volt ocate these two points on the diode s curve . onnect them with a load line. he intersection is the graphical solution .

The load line :

Forward current in mA
200 175 150 125 100 75 50 25 0 0 0.5 1 .0

a graphical solutio
10 1.5 V

Lo

ad

li

ne

Q
I SAT V CUTOFF = 1.5 V 10 = = 150 mA

1.5 V

1.5

Q stands for quiescent .

Electrical Properties of Materials

vs[V]
15

10 k 30k
D1 D2

t [s]
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

vs
30 k
R

30k

-15