IDENTIFICATION

Identification is the determination of

the Individuality of a person based on
certain Physical characteristic.
Identification is necessary In:
• Living persons.
• Recently dead persons.
• Decomposed bodies.
• Mutilated bodies.
• Skeleton. It’s necessary in criminal
cases – civil cases –
• At least two identification marks
should be noted by the doctor in all
medico-legal cases before
identifying in the court.
The CORPUS DELICTI:
The body of offence – facts of any
criminal offence i.e. the essence of
crime– include body of the victim –
Clothing – drawing and photographs.

IDENTIFICATION DATA:

1. Race and religion

2. Sex
3. Age
4. General development and stature
5. Complexion,
6. Features of hair,
7. Features of eyes,
8. Congenital and acquired peculiarities
like
malformations, birth marks, moles,
scar marks, tattoo marks,
occupational marks,
deformities, disease and wounds, etc,
9. Features present in the teeth,
10. Photography (very important but
may be deceptive in some case),
11. Anthropometric measurement
including height and weight.
12.Finger print (single confirmatory
criterion), sole print, nail print , lip
print and palate print.
13. Study of DNA profile,
14. Teeth and bite mark,
15. Some other biometric identification
feature
like – a) hand geometry, b) palm
vein authentication, c) retinal scan,
d) iris scan,
e. signature, f) voice analysis, g)
face recognition.
16. Dress, ornaments and other belongings
including pocket or purse articles like
 diary, passport and letter,
17. Cosmetics,
18. Superimposition technique (in
case of dead subject),
reconstruction of facial
structure and appearance,
19. Hand writing and signature,
voice, gait, habit, tricks, manners,
educational status, memory and
intelligence (only in living),
20. Facial sketching on the
description of eyewitness
21. Dog’s scent identification,
22. Secured card technology/
23.gene card DNA identification.
• Complexion and features.
• External peculiarities, such as
moles, birthmarks , malformations
scars, tattoo marks,
Wounds, occupation marks, etc.
• Anthropometric measurements.
• Fingerprints and footprints.
• Teeth.
• Personal effects: Cloths, pockets
contents
jewellery ,etc.
• Handwriting.
• Speech and voice.
• Memory and detection.
11 to 14 are useful only in the living –
sex, age and stature are primary
characteristic of identification.
RACE: Race is defined as– biological grouping
within human species distinguished or
classified according to genetically
transmitted differences.
3 varieties-
a. Caucasoid- Italy, Armenia, Egypt, Iran.
Fair, grey or blue eyes, raised forehead,
narrow & elongated nasal aperture,
sharp nose, small face,
traingular hard palate.
b. Mongolians or mongoloids–
Yellowish, black iris, inclined
backward forehead rounded
nasal aperture, flattened nose.
c. Negro or negroids– Body &
eyes black, small & compressed
forehead, broad nasal aperture
& blunt nose.
SKELETON:
The Cephalic Index (C.I) =
Maximum breadth of skull X100
Antero- Posterior
length of skull
Brachial Index= Length of Radius X100
Length of Humerus
Crural Index= Length of Tibia X100
Length of Femur
Inter membral Index=
Length of Humerus+Length of Radius X100
Length of Femur+Length of Tibia.
Humero-Femoral Index= Length of HumeruX100
Length of Femur
Europeans- 69, Negroes- 72.4
As per C.I.–
Dolico-cephalic– oblong headed
Meso- cephalic– intermediate headed
Brachy- cephalic- short square
headed
As per Brachial index—
Europeans– value is 74.5
Negroes– value is 78.5
As per Crural index—
Europeans– value is 83.3
Negroes– value is 86.2
As per Inter- membral index- value
almost same in Europeans & Negroes
>70 & < 70.5
Superimposition technique of Identification
When a bunch of bones are sent for examination and
opinion, concern in identification ,and other medico legal
aspects, superimposition technique can be used to
establish the identity of the deceased. If the bones are
suspected to be those of a missing person and if the skull
or skull and mandible are present in the bunch, and life-
time frontal view photograph of the missing person is
also available, then photograph of the skull is taken from
an angle matching with the view the available life-time
Photograph of the missing person.
Transparent of the skull photograph
and the transparent (negative) of
the life-time photograph are
focused on the same sensitive
printing paper. The focusing is so
adjusted that the different
anatomical landmarks of the face
from both transparent (negative),
will have maximum alignments,
after giving due consideration to
the thickness
of the soft tissue in the transparency of
the life-time photograph. Then, from the
positive print thus obtained which now
possesses shadowed of the outer
surface of the face (from the transparent
of life- time photograph) and the skull
bone (from the transparent of the skull
bone), it becomes easy to study whether
the bony prominences, elevations
depression and different cleavages of
the
 two shadows match properly or not, so to say
whether the skull could belong to the missing
person or not.
MICROSCOPIC STUDY OF SEX CHROMATIN
(NUCLEAR SEXING)—
46 chromosomes– 22 pairs autosomes
2 are sex chromosomes.
Normal males- Pattern of sex chromosomes XY
Normal females- Pattern of sex chromosomes XX
Further investigation revealed- In females nodules
are present in cells. When nodule is found she is
chromatin positive.
Microscopically this is seen as a
condensed material towards the
nuclear membrane of the nucleus
of the cell. This is sex chromatin
or BARR BODY. They are better
appreciated in cells of buccal
mucosa, skin, cartilage, nerve,
amniotic fluid, polymorphs,
lymphocytes.
DETERMINATION OF SEX OF A PERSON BY MICROSCOPIC STUDY
OF SEX CHROMOSOMES (Nuclear sexing).
• Barr body or sex chromatin is a distinctive basophilic,
intranuclear structure usually located near the inner
surface of nuclear membrane of the somatic cells of
females, which is absent in males. It is presumed that this
is due to the inactivation of an extra X chromosome and
the number of Barr bodies present is correlated with the
number of X chromosomes.
Davidson and Smith observed a sex
difference in the morphology of polymorphonuclear
leukocytes in females. Some polymorph nuclei
demonstrate an additional lobe (“drumstick”) which is
rarely found in males. This is called as DAVIDSON BODY.
INTERSEX-- Iner mingling of both
sexes in one person– They are of
4 types, namely
1. Gonadal Agenesis
2. Gonadal Dysgenesis.
3. True Hermophroditism
4. Pseudo Hermophroditism
Intersex (Disorder of sexual Differentiation)-
Intermingling of sexual characters of either sex
in one individual including physical form,
reproductive organs and sex behavior.
• Klinefelter Syndrome – Anatomically male but
nuclear sex is female (chromatin +ve )
The classical pattern is associated with 47
xxy karyotype or 48XXXY or 49 xxyy. It is
male gonadal dysgenesis (hypogonadism).
Eunuchoid tall appearance with abnormally
long legs, atrophic testes, histologically
testicular dysgenesis, small penis,
Gynaecomastia, Axillary & pubic hair absent.
Turner Syndrome –Anatomically female, nuclear
sexing Negative.
• Usual karyotype is 45 chromosomes, pattern is
XO. It is a female gonadal dysgenesis
(hypogonadism). Short stature, low posterior
line, webbing of neck, broad chest, with widely
spread nipples, cubitus valgus, lymphedema,
coarctation of aorta, primary amenorrhea.

Hermaphroditism
1. True Hermaphroditism- Bisexuality, both
ovarian and testicular tissues present.,
External genitalia of both sexes exist in one
individual. Sex chromatin are either
male or female pattern. Karyotype: 46 xx
in 50% of cases, and 46XY in 25% of cases.-
2. Pseudo-hermophroditism
a. Female pseudo-hermophroditism
• Karyptype is 46 XX in all, and the
development of gonads (ovaries) and
internal genitalia are normal, have
male appearance.

b. Male pseudo - hermophroditism

Karyotype is 46XY, gonads are
testes but externally female
appearance due to undeveloped penis
& testicular feminization.
Intersex (Disorder of sexual
differentiation)
• Chromosomal sex, determine the
gonadal sex, causes the development
of phenotypic sex, male and female
urogenital sex is formed.
• Disturbance during embryogenesis, a
testis will develop as long as a normal
Y chromosome is present.
Development of masculine
characteristics, absence of testes, as
seen in females.
 Sex Determination in Intersex
Intersex Anatomical Sex Nuclear
Sex
Gonadal Agenesis - -

Gonadal Dysgenesis

Turner’s Syndrome Female -

Klinefelter’s Syndrome Male Female

True Hermaphroditism Bisexual Female

Pseudo – Hermaphroditism
Male Female Male

Female Male Female

Determination of sex in the Dead
In a decomposed body
• Putrefaction starts early in the
external genitalia
• Search for the ovaries.
• Non-pregnant uterus, non-
degenerative myomas resistant to
putrefaction.
• Prostate organs to putrefy last.
From skeletal remains
• According to Krogman, entire skeleton
100%,
pelvis alone 95%, skull alone 90%, long
bones 80%.
• Sex difference skull and mandible reliable
important differentiating features
supraorbital ridges, glabella, mastoid
process,diagastric groove muscular
markings.
• Pelvis best for sex determination
features
include grater sciatic notch, sub-public
angle, pre-auricular sulcus, shape of
pubis, etc greater sciatic notch early
foetal life.
• Differentiating features become more
prominent after puberty. Sex from
bone should ideally 15-55 years of ages.
• Long bones, sternum, and ribs only used
when the skull and the pelvis are not
available.
• a quantities approach used to
calculate sex indices

i) Sciatic notch index

Width of notch (mm)

X 100
Depth of notch (mm)
Male: 4 to 5; Female: 5 to 6
ii) Washburn ischio-public index

Pubic length (mm)

X100
Ischial length (mm)
Male: 73 to 94; Female: 91 to
115
iii) Corporo-basal sacral index
Breadth of 1st sacral vertebra (mm)
X100
Transverse dia of base of sacrum
Male : 45; Female:40.5
iv)Sternal Index
v) Manubrial length (mm)
X100
Body length (mm)
Male : 46.2; Female:54.3
Concealed sex:
Criminals or some persons may hide their
sex to avoid detection by changing their clothes
or by other means. These cases do not posses
difficulty in identifying sex because physical
examination of individual will reveal the true sex.
 STATURE
• Variations due to muscular relaxation and
elasticity.
• From dismembered body parts basis of the
ratio of the body part , in relation to the entire
body.
• 2.5 to 4 cm is added to the stature calculating
from skeletal to account for soft tissues.
. Stature is maximum between 20-25 yrs of age.
. Outstretched both sides arms between the two
tips of middle fingers= stature
Stature=1. Length from vertex to pubic
symphysis x 2
2. Length from pubic symphysis to one
side heel x 2
3. Sternal notch to pubic symphysis x3.3
4. Length of one fore arm in cm x 2+ 34 (30 cm
for 2 clavicles+ 4cm for Manubrium.)
5. Ht of skull x8
6. Length of fore arm x 19/5
7. Skeletal remains whole + 2.5-4 cm for soft
tissues.
After 30 yrs– Atrophic changes in disc,
cartilages & bones--->cause gradual
decrease in stature 0.6mm/yr
• Estimated accurately with the help of
regression formulae using length of long
and weight bearing bones specially the
lower limb bones.
• Karl pearson regression formulae. It
gives different calculating factors for
bones for males & females.
• Dupertuis & Hadden using more than one
long bone in the calculation, tibia and
femur better estimates.
- Trotter & Gleser racial differences
in stature calculation.
- Dupertuis and Hadden most
reliable.
- Measured in a dry state without
cartilage, using a Hephen
osteometric board.
- Maximum length should be taken
for all bones, femur and tibia are to
be measured obliquely.
- Best results from femur and tibia.
 ANTHROPOMETRY ( BERTILLION
SYSTEM) of identification.
In 1883 Alphonse Bertillon, a French police
officer & an expert introduced the system
of recording of detailed spoken portrait
(Portrait parle ) including precise
measurements (Anthropometry ) of
subject as data for identification.
Principle– After 21 yrs of age, the
dimension of skeleton remain unchanged
& also the ratio insize of different parts
to one another varies considerably in
different individuals.
It includes– 1. Descriptive data– color of
hair, iris, shape of nose, ears, chin etc.
2. Body marks– Moles, scars, tatoo
marks.
3.Body measurements– Ht, A.P. dia of
head & trunk, span of out stretched
arms, length of Lt little finger, Lt fore
arm, Lt foot, breadth of Rt ear, color of
Lt iris.
4. Photograph of front view of head.
5. Profile view of Rt side head.
But here many fallacies are there &
almost not taken into account.
 AGE
Estimation of the age
1. Physical development
2. Teeth
3. Appearance and fusion of
ossification centres.
4. Age – related changes.
Estimation of age during intra-uterine
Life
• Morphology ossification centres
germination of teeth important
ossification centres talus,
calcaneum, tibial and femoral ends.
 Age related changes in foetus
Months (IUL) 3 4 5 6
Features
Length 9cm 16cm 25cm 30cm

Weight 30-35g 120-130g 400g 700g

Nails Present in
membranous - up to proximity -
form of tips of fingers

Hair - Lanugo scalp hair -

appears appears

Sex - differentiable - Well

differentiated
Months (IUL) 3 4 5 6
Eyelids - - - Adherent &
eye lashes
present
Brain - - - Sylvian fissure
formed
Intestine - Meconium in Meconium up to Meconium
upper part of ascending in transverse
small intestine colon colon
Scrotum - - - Empty
Testes - - - on psoas
muscle
Centres of
Ossification - - centre for -
manubrium,1st
segment of sternum
 Age related changes in foetus
Months (IUL) 7 8 9

Features
Length 35 cm 40cm 45cm

Weight 1 kg 1.5 kg 2 - 2.25 kg

Nails up to tips - Beyond the

of fingers tips of
fingers

Hair Scalp hair Scalp hair Scalp hair

1 cm long 1.5 cm 2cm

Sex - - -
Months (IUL) 7 8 9

Eyelids Adherent & eye non-adherent Well formed

lashes present eyelashes present

Brain - - -

Intestine Meconium in - Meconium

descending in rectum
pelvic colon

Scrotum - Corrugated Occupied by

test

Testes Near the internal In canal (L In Scrotum (L

ring before R) before R)

Centres of Talus & 2nd & - Lower end of

Ossification 3rd segments femur, and
of sternum cuboid
Hase’s Rule: to calculate the age of a
foetus
In lunar months from the length of the
foetus.
– Until the foetus reaches the length of
25 cm, square root of the crown- heel
length is age.
– length of the foetus is more than 25
cm,
it is divided by 5.
Estimation of age from Birth till 25
years
1. Physical features
Height and weight secondary
sexual characteristic
2. Teeth
Development of deciduous
dentition, mixed dentition and
permanent dentition.
Calcification and Eruption of Deciduous Teeth
Tooth Calcification Eruption Calcification of

root completed

Central incisor

Lower 5-6 months IUL 6- 8 months 1.5 – 2 years

Upper 5-6 months IUL 7-9 months 1.5 – 2 years

Lateral incisor

Upper 5-6 months IUL 7- 9 months 1.5 – 2 years

Lower 5-6 months IUL 10- 12 months 1.5 – 2 years

First molar 5-6 months IUL 12- 14 months 2 – 2.5 years

Canine 5-6 months IUL 17- 18 months 2.5 – 3 years

Second molar 5-6 months IUL 20- 30 months 3 years

Calcification and Eruption of Permanent Teeth
Tooth Calcification Eruption Calcification of

root completed

First Molar At birth 6 - 7 years 9 - 10 years

Central incisor 3-4 months 6 -8 years 10 years

Lateral incisor 1 year 7 - 9 years 11 years

First premolar 1.5 years 9 - 11 years 12- 13 years

2nd premolar 2 years 10 - 12 years 12- 14 years

Canine 4-5 months 11 - 12 years 12- 13 years

2nd molar 2.5 - 3years 12 - 14 years 14 -16 years

3rd molar 8 - 10 years 17 – 25 years 22 - 25 years

Eruption of temporary teeth–
LMI– 6 months, UMI– 7 months,
ULI– 8 months, LLI– 9
M1– 1yr, C– 1.5yr, M2– 2yrs
Eruption of Permanent teeth–
Mother is in bed baby come
Monday morning.
Molar1 incisor1 incisor2
bicuspid1 bicuspid2
canine molar2 molar3.
Hence the number of temporary
teeth at—
1year age = 12
1 ½ year age = 16
2 years age = 20
Superadded teeth– Temporary
incisors & canine are replaced
by permanent incisors & canine.
Temporary molars are replaced
by permanent premolars.
Permanent molars are the
superadded teeth.
Sucessional or succedaneous
teeth– Permanent incisors,
canine & premolars are the
sucessional teeth.
 International system of numbering teeth

Right Left

Permanent 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 21 22 23 24 25 27 28 Permanent
26

Temporary 55 54 53 52 51 61 62 63 64 65 Temporary

Temporary 85 84 83 82 81 71 72 73 74 75 Temporary

Permanent 48 47 46 45 44 43 42 41 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 Permanent

Right Left
Difference Between temporary teeth and permanent Teeth

Temporary teeth Permanent teeth

Smaller in size , lighter Longer and larger,
And more delicate Anterior stronger and heavier
Teeth vertically placed Anterior teeth
China white in color slightly inclined
Neck is more constricted forwarded Ivory
X-ray reveals tooth germ white in color less
Below the tooth. constricted.
• 3rd molar teeth, predilection for
either agenesis or impaction. Non –
eruption of the 3rd molars X-ray of the
jaw bone reveal impacted teeth,
agenesis complete absence even
on X-ray. After the eruption of
second molar, ramus of mandible
grows posteriorly made out by
placing
Index finger vertically eruption of
3rd molar is very irregular, X-ray
examination of the jaw always be
undertaken to assess the
calcification of 3rd molar, if spacing
is present. If calcification is
complete even without eruption of
3rd molar, age more than 22 years.
• Boyde’s method: Cross striations in
the enamel represent daily
incremental lines. the age of an
individual calculated by counting
number of lines from the neonatal
line onwards. Applicable mainly to
infants accurate with an error of
around 20 days.
 Gustafson’s formula– Age
estimation of adults after 21 yrs is
based on ageing & decaying
changes of teeth. “ APSRTC’’ .
1.ATTRITION– Due to wear &tear
A0– 0 degree– No attrition.
A1– 1st degree– limited to
thickness of enamel.
A2– Limited to dentine tissue.
A3– Attrition has exposed soft
pulp of the tooth.
2. PERIODONTOSIS(Paradentosis)
P0– No periodontosis
P1– Exposure of 1/3rd of root.
P2– Exposure > 1/3rd < 2/3rd of root
P3– Periodontosis extends
beyond 2/3rd of root.
3. SECONDARY DENTINE–
Develops from walls within the
pulp cavity & decrease the size
of pulp cavity.
 S0– No deposition of secondary
dentine tissue.
S1– Secondary dentine starts
developing from upper part.
S2– Up to half of pulp cavity.
S3– Almost whole of pulp cavity
filled by dentine tissue.
4. ROOT RESORPTION– It involves
both cementum & dentine
which show sharp grooves. It
is a decaying process due to
R0– No resorption.
R1– Seen only in some spots.
R2– Conspicuous in larger area.
R3– Resorption involves
cementum & dentine tissue.
5. CEMENTUM APPOSITION–
Cementum increases in
thickness specially near the
root.
C0– Normal layer of cementum.
C1– Apposition slightly greater.
C2– A thick layer of cementum
apposition.
C3– Heavy layer of cementum
apposition.
6. TRANSPARENCY OF ROOT–
Rarification of dentine
tissue after 30 yrs only.
R0– No transparency.
R1– Transparency just noticeable
R2– Transparency up to 1/3rd.
R3– Extends up to 2/3rd length of
root.
• Medico legal importance of teeth:
Estimation of age, identification of
decomposing or disintegrating
remains, tooth pulp, determination of
blood group , sex, DNA
fingerprinting.
Appearance and fusion of centres of
ossification.

Other factors for the estimations of

age.
• Thyroid and cricoid cartilage ossify
by 45 –50 years.
• Fusion of cornua with the body of
hyoid after 40 years.
• Lipping of body of lumbar vertebrae
starts 40-50 years of age.
• Atrophic change intervertebral
discs starts from 50 -60 years of
age.
• Arcus senilis, opaque zone
around the periphery of cornea
around 60 years
• Greying of pubic hair is after 60
years.
Age from ossification activities of skull
. Fontanelle
Posterior fontanelle– closes between
birth- 1.5 months.
Anterior fontanelle– by 2nd yr.
Two postero-lateral fontanels– short
period after birth.
Antero-lateral fontanels– within 1st month.
Metopic sutures– between 2 frontal
bones– closes between 2-8 yrs.
Skull vault sutures– Starts fusion after 25 yrs,
usually at ectocranial surface, Endocranial
surface fusion is speedy.
Sagittal suture– closure starts by 24-25 yrs,
complete by 45-50 yrs.
Coronal suture– starts by 24-25 yrs, completes
fusion by 45-50 yrs.
Lamdoid suture– starts 25-27yrs, closure-50-55
yrs.
Parito- temporal suture– closes by 70 yrs.
Basiocciput fuses with Basisphynoid, 18-20yrs
in females, 20-22 yrs in males.
MEDICOLEGAL IMPORTANCE OF
AGE
1. Within a wk fertilized ovum gets
impregnated – called embryo.
2. From 2nd month I.U – Foetus.
3. Three lunar month I.U – 1st
Trimester – MTP can be done.
4. Five lunar month (20wks) –
Maxium age for MTP – after this
only on mother’s life in danger.
5. 7 lunar month (28 wks) – After this if
no life of foetus it is still born foetus.
6. 7 calendar month (210 days) – Age
of viability.
7. Ten lunar month – Full term foetus.
8. Up to1 yr age – Infant
Infanticide.
9. 5yrs age – Responsible for his act
leading to wreckage of a train
(Railway Act).
10. 7yrs – Under this age not
responsible for criminal act.
11. 7-12yrs – Responsibility depends on
his maturity.
12. 10yrs – If the child removed from
lawful guardianship for rubbing
movable property from his possession
– Amount to offence of kidnapping.
13. 12yrs age –
a) Any act done by guardian with a
good intension is not an offence even if
it causes harm.
b) Bellow this age a child can not give
a consent to suffer any harm.
14. 14yrs – Factory act – Bellow this
age is a child, cannot be
employed for a factory job.
15. 14-15 yrs – Can be employed in
non hazardous factory job for
limited period in day hours.
16. 15yrs –
a) Sexual intercourse bellow this
age even if she is her own wife
amounts to rape.
b) Can be employed in a factory
with fitness certificate.
17. 16yrs –
a) Taking away a male person
under this age without consent
of lawful guardian --
Kidnapping.
b) Statutory rape– sec 375 IPC.
c) Under this age an offender is
a juvenile offender, to be tried
in juvenile court - Sent to a
borstal or reformatory school.
18. 18 yrs-
a) Age of maturity.
b) Minimum age for marriage for
women.
c) Taking away a girl bellow this
age from guardians amounts to
kidnapping.
d) Kidnapping a boy or girl bellow
this age for begging is punishable
with imprisonment up to 10yrs.
e) Above this age, one can be
employed in a factory.
f) Above this age can give a
valid consent to suffer any
harm.
g) Minimum age for govt job.
h) Can make a valid will.
i) Can cast votes.
19. 21yrs –
a) A girls if imported to India from
foreign countries for the purpose
of forcing her or seducing her to
illicit intercourse, amounts to
kidnapping.
b) Minimum age for marriage for
males.
c) up to this a juvenile offender
can stay in a borstal school.
20. 25yrs – Minimum age for
contesting for M.L.A.& M.P.
21. 25-28yrs – Age limit for entering
govt job.
22. 35 yrs – Appointment of
president, vice president &
Governor.
23. 55-65yrs – Age of retirement in
different sectors.
TATTOO MARKS
• Designs made by multiple small
punctured wounds into the skin
by needles dipped in a dye
• Usually dye is deposited into
the dermis
DYES

• Indigo blue, cobalt

• Indian ink, china ink
• Prussian blue
• Ultramarine
• carbon
• Vermillion, cinnabar
 ARTIFICIAL REMOVAL
• Electrolysis
• Carbon-dioxide snow
• Derma-abrasion
• Application of corrosives
• Burns
• Laser burns
• Surgical removal, skin grafting
• UV LIGHT EXAMINATION/LN BIOPSY
ML IMPORTANCE

• IDENTIFICATION
 race
 religion
 nationality
 personal identity
 occupation
Contd…

• Personality
 individual mentality
 erotic tattoos
 homosexuality
• Camouflage
• Social status
COMPLICATIONS

• Infections-erysipelas, abscess,
sepsis, gangrene
• Leprosy
• TB
• STD’S
• HIV/AIDS
OCCUPATION MARKS
• RECENT/Temporary
 paint, dust, grease, flour
 may connect with scene of the crime
• PERMANENT
 rough hands, callosities
 needle puncture marks, notched teeth
 metal burns
 blue scars in coal miners
 musicians-thickened finger tips
SCARS

• Produced from healing of an

injury
• Fibrous tissue covered by
epithelium
• No hair follicles, sweat glands
or pigment
• Injury must involve dermis
EXAMINATION

• Number
• Location
• Size and shape
• Level as related to body surface
• Fixity, smoothness and color
• Tenderness
• FAINT SCARS CAN BE DETECTED BY
UV LIGHT EXAMINATION
CHARACTERISTICS
• Incised wounds-linear
• Lacerated-irregular, more prominent
• Stab-oval, triangular, regular or
irregular
• Bullet-circular, depressed
• Scalds-spotted appearance with
splash marks
• Vaccination-oval, flat, depressed
• SCARS GROW WITH THE INDIVIDUAL
AGE OF THE SCAR

• 5 to 6 days- red or blue

• By 14 days- pale, soft and
tender
• No change until about 2 months
• 2 to 6 months- white and
glistening, toughens
ML IMPORTANCE

• Identification
• Age of the scar is important in
criminal cases
• Shape can indicate weapon of
offence
• GRIEVOUS HURT
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA)
Profiling or DNA Finger Printing.
. DNA molecules are present in
chromosomes ( 99% ) &
mitochondria ( 1% ).
. Very long but negligible breadth
& thickness.
. DNA in human cell is composed
of 500 crores subunits
(nucleotides)– each is composed
of deoxyribose phosphate with
heterocyclic base of adenine,
thymine, guanine or cytosine.
 DNA- 1. Nuclear DNA
2. Mitochondrial DNA ( mt
DNA )
DNA is stored as a code made up
of 4 chemical bases– Adenine
(A), Thymine (T), Guanidine (G),
Cytosine (C).
DNA consists of 3 million bases–
99% of these bases are same in
all people. The order or
Sequence of these bases
determine the information
available for building &
maintaining an organism ( like
letters of a word ). DNA bases
pair up with each other i.e. A
with T, G with C to form units
called base pairs. Each base is
attached to a sugar &
phosphate molecule. Together a
base sugar & phosphate are
called a nucleotide
Nucleotides are arranged in 2
long strands called double helix.
The structure of double helix is
like a ladder, the base pairs
form the ladder’s rungs, the
sugar & phosphate molecules
forming the vertical side pieces
of the ladder.
The DNA can replicate or
make copies of itself. Each
strand of double helix can serve
as a pattern for duplicating the
sequence of bases.
. DNA chain is mostly in pair of 2
strands of polynucleotide.
. Of the four bases adenine of one
strand pairs with thymine of other &
guanine of one pair with cytosine of
other.
. The base one chain is complementary
to the other.
. During formation of spermatozoa & ova
by process of cell division, the two
strands of chain separate. The DNA
molecular chain of fertilized ova & the
 Offspring contain a strand from
each parent.
. Thus the DNA chains of
offspring inherit the specific
hereditary properties of both
the parents through the strands
each parent contribute..
. For matching test samples of
any tissue, blood semen, saliva,
human remains can be used.
. The testing is done by
1. Restricted Fragment Length
Polymorphism ( RLFP ) analysis.
2. Polymerase chain reaction
(PCR) technique.
3. Short Tandem Repeats ( STR )
4. Mitochondrial DNA analysis.
Medico legal application of DNA
1.To identify an assailant by
collecting blood, hair bulb from
scene of crime.
2. To identify a rapist from sperm &
blood.
3. To settle up disputed paternity.
4. Disputed maternity in mixed
babies in hospitals.
5. Missing persons can be identified
if parents or children available.
6. By PCR– Persons can be
identified from old dead body
remains if his parents or children
available.
7. Affirmation or negation of
relationship between a suspect
from available evidence.
8. In relation to tissue organ
transplantation.
9. Authentification of some
biological products.
10. Identification by DNA gene
card ( smart card/ secure card )
11. DNA test for siblings.
SIR ALEC JEFFREYS IS CALLED
THE FATHER OF DNA FINGER
PRINTING. It came to light in
1984 only.