Theory of Continuous Media Applied to

Automotive

Continuum Mechanics

Zakaria EL QOUBAA, PhD

2020-2021
Zakaria EL QOUBAA
Experience:

 Professor of higher and technical teaching, Academy of Nantes, France

 Professor researcher, International University of Agadir
 Research Engineer, Université Gustave Eiffel (ex Laboratoire Central des
Ponts et chaussées de l’Ecole des Ponts Paritech, LCPC)
 Post-doctoral researcher, Institut de recherche en Génie civil et Mécanique
GeM, Ecole Centrale Nantes

Education:

 Ph.d in mechanics of materials from Ecole Centrale Nantes, France (5th

french big engineering school).
 Master of science from Ecole Centrale Nantes in computational mechanics.
 Master of engineering from Université de Bretagne-Sud in mechanics and
materials.
Topics (some slight modifications may occur on the topics)
 Fundamentals of carteasian tensors, tensor derivatives, green-gauss
theorem.

 Rate of deformation, principal strain, linear compatibility equations.

 Definition of stress, cauchy and nominal stresses, balance laws, linear and
angular momentum, energy, principal stresses, deviatoric and hydrostatic
stress, reynolds transport theorem, singular surfaces in a continuum.

 First and second laws of thermodynamics for a continuum, equations of

state, coupled thermomechanics, boundary conditions

 Fundamentals of linear elastic behavior of solids, material symmetries,

variational principles

 Fundamentals of continuum damage mechanics using internal state variable

3
Important Notions:
Continuous medium(continuum): A medium can be considered as continuous
when there is no gaps or empty in its matter, disregarding (ignoring) its molecular
atomic structure. Henceforth, the distribution of all the characteristics of
the medium herein (including density, stresses, and velocities of particles) can
also be considered to be continuous.

Body: A representation (isolation) of the studied continuous medium where we

can identify loading forces and apply principles of mechanics on it.

Mechanics: Study of kinematics (motions) of a body, due to the application of

(macroscopic) forces leading to its displacement or changes of its position.

Kinematics: Change in macroscopic position (all the body) or microscopic

structure (Geometry) when particles of the body move considering the resulting
displacement, velocities and accelerations due to the applied forces.

4
Why Continuum Mechanics?
Real industrial cases:
Determination of the resistance to crash of a vehicle

Calculate the stamping force of a can

Automotive Crash test

Stamping process

Prediction of tires failure due to crack propagation

Crack propagation in tires

5
Why Continuum Mechanics?

Mechanics of material points: Cannot deal with the rotations of a body

(rotation of a point is meaningless !)

Solid Mechanics: Consider the studied body as undeformable. We cannot

estimate the deformation (damage) of a body

Another alternative is required to solve these problems. Solutions are in

Continuum mechanics.

Continuum mechanics is the sudy of motions and

behaviour of deformable bodies

6
What we need to apprehend Continuum
Mechanics?

 Linear Algebra (Vectors, Tensors…)

 Kinematics (configuration of a body, displacement, velocity,

deformation…)

 The concept of stress

 Thermodynamics of continuum media (Mechanical behaviour)

7
Introduction to vectors and tensors:

Considering physical quantities:

Scalars: Real numbers can describe temperatures, densities, mass…

Vectors: Representation of physical quantities having direction and magnitude

(lenght): forces, velocities, accelarations…

Tensors: Representation of stresses and deformations…Using three

dimenstional Eucleadian space and carteasian coordinate system

8
Algebra of vectors:

Let u and v be two vectors space, characterized by an application

point, a direction, a sense and a norm (magnitude)

The sum of u and v yields a new vector u+v, based on the

parallelogram law of addition

From linear combination operations,we can write:

u+v=v+u u+v
(u+v)+w=u+(v+w) u
u+o=u
u+(-u)=o v

o is the zero vector

9
Algebra of vectors:
Let α and β be real numbers (scalars), that reads:

(αβ)u= α(βu)
(α+β)u= αu+βu
α(u+v)= αu+αv

The dot product:

The dot (scalar or inner product) of u and v, denoted by u·v

u·v=|u||v|cosθ(u·v) with 0≤ θ(u·v) ≤ π

θ is the angle between the two non zero vectors u and v when their origins
coincide

A non zero vector u is said to be orthogonal or perpendicular to vector v if

u·v=0 with θ(u·v)= π/2
10
Algebra of vectors:
How to express a vector in a three dimensional Eucleadian space using
carteasian coordinate system?

Unit vector:
A vector e is called a unit vector if its norm is equal to 1, |e|=1.

Basis vector:

In order to represent coordinate (or component) in an Eucleadian basis, we

introduce a fixed set of three basis vectors unit defined as:

Then any vector u in the three-dimentional Eucleadian space is represented

uniquely by a linear combination of the basis vectors ie,
u=

11
Algebra of vectors:
and are real numbers, they are the uniquely determined carteasian
components of vector u along the given directions respectively. The
components of are (1,0,0), (0,1,0), (0,0,1) respectively.

Vector u with its carteasian components in

the three-dimensional Euclidean space
z

u
𝒖𝟑
𝒆𝟑
𝒆1 x

𝒆𝟐 𝒖𝟐
y 𝒖𝟏

12
 Algebra of vectors:
Considerinng the basis , the vector u can be written in this basis using
indexation, we write:

u= or simply: u= (=1,2,3)

Taking the basis {}, using the cartesian coordinate, the dot product of
vectors u and v can be whriten as:

u.v= from where the norm of u is:

=u.u=

The cross (vector) product:

The cross product of u and v, denoted by u×v (also u^v), produce a

new vector. The cross product is not commutative.

13
Algebra of vectors:
Here is some relations:

u×v=-(v×u)
u×v=o (u and v are linearly dependent)
(αu)×v=u×(αv)=α(u×v)
u.(v×w)=v.(w×u)=w.(u×v)
u×(v+w)= (u×v)+(u×w)= u×v+ u×w

The magnitude of the cross product is defined to be:

|u×v|=|u||v|sinθ(u,v)

The result of cross product is a vector, however its magnitude is an

area.
u×v

v Area=|u×v|

θ
14
u
 Algebra of vectors:

Considering the basis , the cross product of u and v is the vector w,

written as:

w= u×v= det

w=

, and are the components of the vector w result of the cross product in
the basis

15
 Algebra of tensors:
Just as a vector can be thought of as column matrix, tensors can be imagined
as square matrices.
A second-order tensor A can be defined as a linear operator that acts on a
vector u generating a vector v, we can write:

v=Au

A is a linear transformation, It reads : A(αu+v)=αAu+Av

We have also:
(A+B)u=Au+Bu, (A-B)u=Au-Bu and (αA)u= α(Au)

u is an arbitrary vector, A and B are two second order tensors, α is a scalar.

The identity tensor I and the second order zero tensor O are defined as:
Iu=uI=u and Ou=uO=0
16
 Algebra of tensors:
Tensor product:
The tensor product of two vectors u and v is a tensor defined as:

u= , v= u⊗v=

Tensor multiplication= matrix multiplication:

If we have two tensors A and B

A= and B=

17
 Algebra of tensors:
We can multiply them as follow :

AB=

If tensors A and B are invertible, then the properties:

18
Algebra of tensors:
Trace of a Tensor:

The trace of a second order tensor is

𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑨= 𝑨 𝑖𝑖
We have the properties of the trace:

Eigenvectors and eigenvalues:

An eigenvector u of a tensor A is defined by the equation:

A
is the eigenvalue. In components

19
 Algebra of tensors:

The eigenvalues are then found from:

det(
If we calculate the determinant in the preceding equation we find:

λ 3 − 𝑰 1 λ 2 + 𝑰 2 λ − 𝑰 3= 0
where the principal invariants of the tensor A are

20
 Algebra of tensors:
Spherical and deviatoric tensors:

Every tensor A can be decomposed into its so called spherical part and
deviatoric part that is:

The deviatoric operator is denoted by the short-hand notation, that is, dev(●)=(●)-
(1/3)tr(●)

21
 Tensors function:
In order to achieve a variational study of tensors, we need to define a tensor
function.

A tensor function is a function whose arguments are one or more tensor

variables and whose values are scalars, vectors or tensors. A tensor function A
𝑨( 𝑩)
with a variable tensor B is written

Let’s consider a tensor function with one scalar variable such as time (t).
A tensor can be written using a tensor product of the vector basis . It reads:

The tensor A can be expressed as function of t:

𝐀 (t )= 𝑨 (t )𝑖𝑗 𝒆 𝑖 ⊗ 𝒆 𝑗

22
 Tensors function:
Tensor derivative:

The first derivative of a tensor A with respect to t (rate of change) denoted by

is given by the first derivative of their associated components. Since ,
we write:
˙ t )= 𝑨
𝑨( ˙ (t )𝑖𝑗 𝒆 𝑖 ⊗ 𝒆 𝑗

By applying the rules of differentiation, we obtain the identities:

The overbars cover quantities to which the dot operations are applied.

23
 Divergence theorem:
Green-gauss theorem:
The green-gauss theorem is one of the most famous therories of the integral
teorems. It is of essentiel importance in the field of continuum mechanics.

Suppose u and A are any vector and tensor field defined on some convex three-
dimentional region in physical space with volume v on a closed surface s bounding
this volume.
n

Surface element ds

Closed surface s
Volume v

We have (without proof), for, u and A

❑ ❑

∫ 𝒖 .𝒏 𝑑𝑠=∫ 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝒖 𝑑𝑣
𝑠 𝑣 24
 Divergence theorem:
Green-gauss theorem:

❑ ❑

∫ 𝑨 . 𝒏 𝑑𝑠=∫ 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑨 𝑑𝑣
𝑠 𝑣
n is the outward unit normal field acting along the surface s, dv and ds are
infinitesimal volume and surface element.

The importance of this theorem is the transformation of a surface integral into a

volume integral.

25
Kinematics:
We use the method of continuum mechanics as a powerful and effective tool to
explain various physical phenomena successfully without knowledge of the
complexity of their internal (micro)structures.

In order to explain the macroscopic behavior of physical objects, first, we must

understand the motion and deformation that cause stress in a material (or are
caused by stresses) arising from force and moments.

The study of motion and (finite) deformation of a continuum (that is kinematics) is

the aim of this part.

The principle of kinematics are applicable to all classes of materials, regardless of

their internal physical structures.

26
Kinematics:
Configuration, and motion of continuum bodies:

Notation of a particle and a continuum body:

Macroscopic systems usually can be described successfully with a continuum
approach (macroscopic approach). Such an approach leads to the continuum
theory.

The continuum theory has been developed independently of the molecular and
atomistic theory.

A fundamental assumption therein states that a body denoted by Ɓ, may be

viewed as having a continuous (or at least a piecewise continuous) distribution of
matter in space and time.
The body is imagined as a composition of a (continuous) set of particles (or
continuum particles or materials points) represented by P∈ Ɓ.

27
Kinematics:
Configuration, and motion of continuum bodies:

In a macroscopic study we are concerned with the mechanics of a body in which

both mass and volume are continuous (or at least piecewise continuous) functions
of continuum particles. Such a body is called a continuum body or a continuum.

Configuration:
Consider a continuum body Ɓ with particle P∈ Ɓ which is embedded in three-
dimensional Euclidean space at given time t (see figure bellow).
We introduce a reference frame of right-handed rectangular coordinate axes at
fixed origin O with orthonormal basis .

As the continuum body Ɓ moves in space from one instant of time to another, it
occupies a continuous sequence of geometrical regions denoted by , .

28
Kinematics:
Configuration, and motion of continuum bodies:
Reference
configuration χ Current
configuration

X
● ● x
Ω0 Ω
Time t=0
Ƙ
Time t
P●
Ɓ
x
X
,

Configuration and motion

of a continuum body 𝒆𝟑
,
𝒆𝑂𝒆
𝟏
𝟐
,
29
Kinematics:
Configuration, and motion of continuum bodies:

Hence, every particle P of Ɓ corresponds to a so-called geometrical point having a

position in region , .
The region which are occupied by the continuum body Ɓ at a given time t are
known as configurations of Ɓ at that time t.

The geometrical regions are determined uniquely at any instant of time. Region
with a the position of a typical point X corresponds to a fixed reference time. This
region is referred to as the fixed reference (or undeformed) configuration of
the body Ɓ. A region at initial time t=0 is referred to as the initial configuration.

We agree that the initial configuration coincide with the reference configuration,
hence the reference time is at t=0.

30
Kinematics:
Configuration, and motion of continuum bodies:

The point X now has the position of a particle occupied by P∈ Ɓ at t=0. P may be
identified by the position vector (or referencial position) X of point X relative to the
fixed origin O.

We assume now that the region of space moves to a new region . is occupied by
the body Ɓ at a subsequent time t>0. the configuration of Ɓ at t is so-called
current (or deformed) configuration.

The point X of the reference configuration is related to a point x of the current

configuration occupied by a particle P∈ Ɓ at times t=0 and t>0. the position vector
x serves as label of point x on the current configuration with respect to the fixed
origin O.

31
Kinematics:
Configuration, and motion of continuum bodies:

The components of vectors and are considered as being along the axes
introduced. We label , as the material (or referential) coordinates of point X and as
the special (or current) coordinates of point x.
We assume that the origin of sets and coincide and are identical, we use just in
the following.

Motion: we assume that the map is one-to-one correspondence between a

particle P∈ Ɓ and the point ∈ that Ɓ at a given instant of time t=0.

Furthermore, let the map act on Ɓ to produce the region at time t. The place
that the particle P (evidently identified with X and t) occupies at t is described by
(in symbolic and index notation).

32
Kinematics:
Configuration, and motion of continuum bodies:

,,,

For all ∈ and for all times t. In the equation above, is a vector field that specifies
the place x of X for all fixed t, and it is called the motion of the body Ɓ. The motion
is suitably regular and carries points X located at to places x in the current
configuration .

The motion is assumed to be uniquely invertible. Consider (x,t), the position of

point X, which is associated with the place x at time t, is specified uniquely by
equation above as:

X ,,

33
Kinematics:
Configuration, and motion of continuum bodies:

With the inverse motion denoted by that is the inverse of the mapping

A motion of a body will generally change its shape, position and orientation. A
continuum body which is able to change its shape said to be deformable.

34
Kinematics:
Configuration, and motion of continuum bodies:
Application example:
Let a deformed configuration of an initially rectangular region with lengths and be
given as shown in figure bellow. The time dependent angle θ is given by , where
denotes the angular velocity.
X𝟐 ,x𝟐
, t=π/4
θ(𝑡)❑
L𝟐
X ● ●
𝒙
, t=0 X𝟏 ,x 𝟏
L𝟏
Determine the motion of a particle given by the position vector X ∈ and time t.
In particular, determine the motion at (/2, 2,1) and at time t=π/4 with

35
Kinematics:
Material and special descriptions:

The so called material (or referencial) description is a characterization of the

motion (or any other quantity) with respect to the material coordinates , , and time
t, given by the equation:
,,,

In the material description, attention is paid to a particle, and we observe what

happens to the particle as it moves. Traditionally, the material description is often
referred to as the Lagrangian description (or Lagrangian form).

Note that at t=0, we have the consistency condition

36
Kinematics:
Material and special descriptions:

The so called Eulerian (or spacial) description is a characterization of the motion

(or any other quantity) with respect to the spacial coordinates , , and time t, given
by the equation:

X ,,
In the spacial description, attention is paid to a point in space, and we study what
happens at this point as time changes.

In fluid mechanics, we quite often work in the Eulerian description in which we refer
all relevant quantities to the position in space at time t. It is not useful to refer the
quantities to the material coordinates at t=0, which are, in general, not known in
fluid mechanics. However, in solid mechanics, we use both types of description.
Due to the fact that the constitutive behavior of solids is often given in terms of
material coordinates, we often prefer the Lagrangian description.

37
Kinematics:
Displacement, velocity, acceleration fields:
Displacement field:

The vector field

𝐔 ( X , t )= 𝐱 ( 𝐗 , t ) − 𝐗
Represents the displacement field of a typical particle and relates its position X in
the undeformed configuration to its position x in the deformed configuration at time
t. This relation holds for all particles of the body.

The displacement field is a function of the referential position X and time t, which
characterize the material description (Langrangian form) of the displacement
field.

38
Kinematics:
Displacement, velocity, acceleration fields:
Displacement field:

The displacement field in the spatial description (Eulerian form), denoted is a

function of the current position x and time t, we write:

u
The formula above specifies the current position x of a particle at time t which
results from its referential position plus its displacement u from that position.

39
Kinematics:
Displacement, velocity, acceleration fields:
Displacement field:

Note that U and u have the same

values. u

The vectors U and u are referred to the

material coordinates and the special
coordinates , respectively.

Since we agreed that the initial

configuration coincides with the
reference configuration, the
displacements vanish in the reference
configuration

,t]=u
40
Kinematics:
Displacement, velocity, acceleration fields:
Displacement field:

Let’us take the precedent example. The only displacement (motion) of the
particle was in one axis using the coordinates and (initial and deformed
configurations).

Vector displacement U

We have then

= tgθ

41
Kinematics:
Displacement, velocity, acceleration fields:
Velocity and acceleration field:

The first and second derivatives of the motion with respect to time t are performed
by holding the vector position X fixed. We obtain:

V, A

Where V and A denote the material description of the velocity field and the
acceleration field, respectively. They are function of the material coordinates , ,
‘Langrangian form’ and time t representing the time rate of change of position
and velocity of a particle with a vector position X at time t.

42
Kinematics:
Displacement, velocity, acceleration fields:
Velocity and acceleration field:

Quite often we need a formulation in terms of spatial coordinates , , characterizing

a fixed location in space at time t. As mentioned above, such a description is
known as the Eulerian or spatial description in which now we want to define the
velocity filed and acceleration field.

The two descriptions are transformed into each other by using the motion . In the
spatial description, X may be expressed in terms of x and t. Hence, by analogy to
the expression of the displacement field in the two configuration:

,t]=u
We conclude that

V,t]=v
A,t]=a
43
Kinematics:
Displacement, velocity, acceleration fields:
Velocity and acceleration field:

Where v and a denote the spatial description of the velocity field and the
acceleration field respectively.

V,t]=v
A,t]=a

The velocity components and the acceleration components for V and A are
denoted by and , while for and , we write and respectively.

44
Kinematics:
Motion, displacement, velocity, acceleration fields:
Quiz:

1- How can a vector force be respresented using linear algebra?

2- How can we define the motion and displacement of a particle (of a body) in
continuum mechanics?
3- What is the difference between Lagrangian form and Eulerian form in continuum
mechanics?

45
Kinematics:
Displacement, velocity, acceleration fields:
Working example:

A certain motion of a continuum body in the material description is given in the

form.
-, ,

For , find the velocity and acceleration components in terms of the material and
spatial coordinates and time t, i,e, , and , , respectively. and

46
Kinematics:
Displacement, velocity, acceleration fields:
Exercise:

1-Consider the motion of a continuum body given by the equations:

-, ,

Where is a constant. Determine the displacement, velocity and

For , find the velocity and acceleration components in terms of the material and
spatial coordinates and time t, i,e, , and , , respectively. and

47
Kinematics:
Displacement, velocity, acceleration fields:
Exercise:

2- A motion of a continuum body is defined by the velocity components:

, ,

Assume that the reference configuration of the continuum body is at t=0, with the
consistency condition .

a- Derive the particle path i.e the motion

b- Compute the velocity in terms of the material coordinates and time t i.e and
the associated acceleration in the material and spatial descriptions.

48
Kinematics:
Deformation Gradient:

The main objective of this section is to study the deformation (i.e the change of
size and shape) of a continuum body occurring when moved from the reference
configuration to some current configuration .

Recall that the motion of a particle (or a body) is defined according to the equation
This transformation equation consider the deformation of an infinitesimal material
line element around the particle denoted by located at the point of the reference
configuration.

Mapping of an infinitesimal material line element from

the reference to the current configuration.

Ω0 Ω 49
Kinematics:
Deformation Gradient:

This material element is mapped into another infinitesimal line element at point in
the current configuration at time . Keeping time fixed and taking differentials of both
sides of , it follows that

Where is the deformation gradient tensor relative to the reference configuration ,

defined as:

According to the equation above, the deformation gradient provides the rule by
which infinitesimal line elements are mapped from the reference to the current
configuration.

50
Kinematics:
Deformation Gradient:

These infinitesimal line elements are considered as vectors and are expressed in
the vector basis of the Euclidean three dimensional space in the initial and current
configuration as follow:

and

and respectively.

is a tensor, it has by necessity the form:

𝜕 χ a( 𝑋 i , t )
F= 𝒆 𝑎 ⊗ 𝑬 𝐴 = 𝑭 𝑎 , 𝐴 𝒆𝑎 ⊗ 𝑬 𝐴
𝜕 𝑋A

51
Kinematics:
Deformation Gradient:
Application:

Consider the transformation given by the motion as follow:

1- Verify at that and

2- Compute the gradient of transformation defined by

𝜕 𝑥𝑖
𝑭 𝑖𝑗 =
In the equation: 𝜕 𝑋 𝑗

𝜕 𝑥𝑖
d 𝑥𝑖 = d 𝑋 j = 𝑭 𝑖𝑗 d 𝑋 𝑗
𝜕𝑋𝑗 52
Kinematics:
Strain tensors:
In order to define the strain tensor, let us consider two infinitesimal vectors and
with an application point on the particle in the initial configuration.

By considering the motion , the vectors and are transformed to and in the current
(deformed) configuration.
53
Kinematics:
Strain tensors:
The strain tensors can be established by performing the dot product of the
infinitesimal vectors , it reads:

is the right Cauchy-Green tensor and is related to the deformation gradient   by:

is a symmetric material second-order tensor and it operates on the material

vector dot product . is expressed as function of vectors and in the referential
configuration.

54
Kinematics:
Strain tensors:
On the other hand, using the inverse motion equation, we can express the dot
product of the infinitesimal vectors and in the referencial configuration as function
of vectors on the current configuration and , it reads:

is the left Cauchy-Green tensor and is related to the deformation gradient   by:

is a symmetric spatial second-order tensor and it operates on spatial vectors

in the current configuration.

55
Kinematics:
Strain tensors:
Material Strain Tensor (Green-Lagrange Strain Tensor)

The Green-Lagrange strain tensor is establised as follow:

is the Green-Lagrange strain tensor defined as:

=

The Lagrangian strain tensor is defined in the referencial configuration as a

material strain tensor. is clearly symmetric and vanishes when the body
undergoes no deformation between the reference and the current configuration,
that is, when
56
Kinematics:
Strain tensors:
Spatial Strain Tensor (Euler-Almansi Strain Tensor)

The Euler-Almansi strain tensor is written in the current configuration using the
same starting vectorial quantity:

is the Euler-Almansi strain tensor defined as:

=

The Eulerian strain tensor is defined in the current configuration as a spatial

strain tensor. is symmetric and vanishes when the current configuration remains
undeformed relative to the reference configuration (that is, when )

57
Kinematics:
Motion, velocity, acceleration fields:
Methodology of resolving a motion problem:

Let us take the Lagrangian form of the motion expressed as .

The matrix defined as ] is called the Jacobian matrix, let us call it . The
determinant of this matrix | is called the Jacobian and is denoted by

The inverse motion is obtained by inverting the Jacobian Matrix so that we can
pass from the mapping related to the Lagrangian form to the one describing the
Eulerian form.

58
Kinematics:
Motion, velocity, acceleration fields:
Methodology of resolving a motion problem:

Studying the motion and its inverse can be seen as handling the linear systems
and

is invertible if

The Jacobian can be viewed physically as the volume scaling factor of the linear
transformation described by the Jacobian matrix related to the motion

59
Kinematics:
Motion, velocity, acceleration fields:
Methodology of resolving a motion problem:

Once the motion and its inverse are well determined, the velocity and
acceleration are computed using the Lagrangian configuration:

V, A

As explained, the velocity and acceleration in the spatial Eulerian form are
deduced from the velocity and acceleration of the Lagrangian configuration using
the equalities:

V,t]=v
A,t]=a
So that the velocity and acceleration in the spatial form are expressed in terms of
spatial coordinates with vector .
60
Kinematics:
Motion, velocity, acceleration fields:
Methodology of resolving a motion problem:
V,t]=v
If there is no possibility to apply the equality A,t]=a

i.e expressing velocity and acceleration in the spatial form in terms of spatial
coordinates with vector .

The unknown velocity is computed using the time derivates principles, Local,
Material and Convective i.e the material derivative is related to the local derivatives
through a convective derivative (We try to avoid this case!)

61
Kinematics:
Motion, velocity, acceleration fields:
Working example:

A motion of a continuum body in the material description is given in the form as

follow

1-Verify at that where both the referential and current configuration coincide
2- Compute the inverse mapping
3- Compute the velocity field in the Lagrangian description, deduce the velocity
field in the Eulerian description.
4- Compute the acceleration field in the Lagrangian description, deduce the
velocity field in the Eulerian description. and respectively

62
Kinematics:
Deformation Gradient (Interpretation):

The Deformation Gradient by definition is:

Since the vector field of displacement can be written as:

𝐔 ( X , t )= 𝐱 ( 𝐗 , t ) − 𝐗
The Deformation Gradient is expressed in function of the displacement as
follow:

Or:

63
Kinematics:
Deformation Gradient (Interpretation):

With the formula, the deformation gradient is expressed as function of the

gradient of displacement .

In the following sections we would see that the origin of the deformation of a body
is the gradient of the displacement .

In fact, all the strain tensors, that describe the deformation of a body, can be
expressed as function of the displacement gradient.

64
Kinematics:
Deformation Gradient (Interpretation):
Polar decomposition:

Statement: Any matrix can be represented as a product of an othogonal matrix

and a symmetric matrix

In line with continuum mechanics, every arbitrary linear transformation represented

in tensorial form can be expressed as a combination of two linear transormations,
that are, an orthogonal transformation and a symmetric transofrmation.

The symmetric transofrmation itself represents a scaling in the orthogonal

directions and it is defined positive.
: Orthogonal matrix
: Symmetric matrix
65
Kinematics:
Deformation Gradient (Interpretation):
Rigid Body Displacements:

An example of a rigid body displacement is:

𝑥

𝑋
In this case is indicative of a lack of deformations. Clearly the displacements do
not appear in the deformation gradient.

The rigid body displacements don't contribute to the strain.

66
Kinematics:
Deformation Gradient (Interpretation):
Rigid Body Rotation:

An example of a rigid body rotation is: 𝑥

𝑋
These equations rotate an object counter-clockwise about the   axis.
In this case is:

Rotations alter the value of   so that it is no longer equal to   even though no
deformations are present. 67
Kinematics:
Deformation Gradient (Interpretation):
Simple deformation:
Stretching:

Start with stretching in the x and y directions. These equations describe a

elongation in the -direction and a elongation in the -direction.

The deformation gradient is is:

𝑋

Note that all off-diagonal components are zero.   reflects stretching in the -
direction and   reflects stretching in the -direction. 68
Kinematics:
Deformation Gradient (Interpretation):
Simple deformation:
Shear (with Rotation):

These equations shear the square as shown 𝑥

The deformation gradient is is:

𝑋

The non-zero off-diagonal value reflects shear. The figure also shows that the
square tends to rotate counter-clockwise. This is reflected in the deformation
gradient by the fact that it is not symmetric. 69
Kinematics:
Deformation Gradient (Interpretation):
General deformation:

Consider the example where an object is transformed from a square to the position
shown in the figure. The equations to do this are

The deformation gradient is is:

𝑋

The object has clearly been stretched and rotated. But by how and how much?

70
Kinematics:
𝑥
Deformation Gradient (Interpretation):
General deformation:

This can be possible via two ways:

Stretching then rotating or rotating then stretching 𝑋
Case1 (Stretching then rotating) :

The first step is a stretch in the -direction and a compression in the –direction.
This gets us from the   reference coordinates to the intermediate  coordinates

The second step is to rotate the   intermediate configuration to the final 

 coordinates.

71
 Kinematics:
𝑥
Deformation Gradient (Interpretation):
General deformation:

In matrix form:

{ }[ ]{ } { } [ ]{ }
′ ′
𝑥1 𝑥1 𝑥1 1.5 0. 𝑋1
= 0 .86 − 0. 5
and
=
𝑥2 0. 5 0 .86 𝑥 ′2
′
𝑥2 0. 0.75 𝑋2

The deformation gradient can be written as the product of two matrices : an

orthogonal rotation and a symmetric matrix describing the deformation:

It is easy to see that the rotation matric corresponds to a 30° rotation. 72

Kinematics:
Deformation Gradient (Interpretation):
General deformation:

The matrix product, of the first case, is commonly written as:

𝐅= 𝑹 . 𝑼
Where   is the rotation matrix (does not cause the stress or strain), and   is the right
stretch tensor that is responsible for strain (and/or stress)

73
Kinematics: 𝑥
Deformation Gradient (Interpretation):
General deformation:
𝑋
Case2 (Rotating then Stretching) :

The deformed and rotated state could equally-well be arrived at by rotating it first,
and then deforming it second. In this case, the reference configuration,  , is first
rotated by the same 30° angle to arrive at an intermediate configuration,  .

And then the intermediate configuration is deformed to arrive at the final, deformed
state:

74
Kinematics:
Deformation Gradient (Interpretation):
General deformation:

The deformation gradient, in the second case, can be written as:

= 𝑥

This is commonly written as follow:

𝐅 =𝑽 . 𝑹 𝑋

Where   is the rotation matrix (same as before), and   is the left stretch tensor.

75