1.

Bioenergetics and Metabolism

Mitochondria
Functions of the mitochondria
Parts and composition of mitochondria
Respiration
2. Chloroplast
Functions of the chloroplast
Parts and Functions
Photosynthesis
Light reaction
Dark Reaction
3. Peroxisome
Bioenergetics & Metabolism

 Cell – the structural & functional unit of living things.

 * The generation of metabolic energy is a major activity of all
cells.
2 cytoplasmic organelles responsible for this :
1. Mitochondria – which is responsible for generating
most of the useful energy derived from the breakdown of lipids
& carbohydrates.
2. Chloroplast – use energy captured from sunlight to generate
both ATP and the reducing power needed to synthesize
carbohydrates from CO2 and H2O.
* Peroxisome - contains enzymes involved in a variety of
different metabolic pathways , including the breakdown of fatty
acids and the metabolism of a by product of photosynthesis.
MITOCHONDRIA
 - Plays a vital role in the generation of
metabolic energy in eukaryotic cells .
 Responsible for most of the useful energy
derived from the breakdown of carbohydrates &
fatty acids which is converted to ATP by the
process of oxidative phosphorylation.
 They are unique with other organelle because
they contain their own DNA w/c encodes tRNAs,
rRNAs and some mitochondrial proteins.
Organization & Function

 It is surrounded by a double membrane system,

consisting of inner & outer mitochondrial
membranes separated by an intermembrane
spaces.
 The inner membrane forms numerous folds
( cristae ) w/c extends into the interior (or
matrix) of the organelle.
* matrix & cristae – major working compartment of
mitochondria
 The matrix contains the mitochondrial
genetic system as well as the enzyme
responsible for the central reactions of
oxidative metabolism.
 Glycolysis – occurs in the cytosol where
glucose is converted to pyruvate.
 Pyruvate is then transported into the
mitochondria where krebs cycle and ETS
takes place.
Cellular Respiration
Overview
 Transformation of chemical energy in
food into chemical energy cells can use:
ATP
 These reactions proceed the same way
in plants and animals. Process is called
cellular respiration
 Overall Reaction:
 C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
Respiration
 Includes all the chemical reaction in which
energy is released to support cell life.
 A process in which glucose is broken down and
energy is released.
 Takes place in the mitochondria of the cell.
 Considered to be the reversed of
photosynthesis.
 Focuses on carbohydrate metabolism in which
the chemical energy is released from various
carbohydrates as a result of oxidation-
reduction and phosphorylation reactions.
2 Types of Respiration

 1. Aerobic Respiration- it is an oxygen

dependent pathway which takes place in
the mitochondria.
 2. Anaerobic Respiration – does not
require oxygen.
Fermentation

 A process in which the cell obtain energy

from the breakdown of food molecules in
the absence of oxygen
 2 types of fermentation
 1.Alcoholic fermentation
 2. Lactic Acid Fermentation
Pathway of Respiration

 1.Glycolysis – the 1st stage of aerobic

respiration

 2.Krebs Cycle – the 2nd stage of aerobic

respiration

 3.Electron Transport Phosphorylation

Glycolysis

 Series of reactions which break the 6-carbon

glucose molecule down into two 3-carbon
molecules called pyruvate
 Process is an ancient one-all organisms
from simple bacteria to humans perform it
the same way
 Yields 2 ATP molecules for every one
glucose molecule broken down
 Yields 2 NADH per glucose molecule
 Glucose
ATP

Glycolysis
ADP

Glucose-6-Phospate

Fructose-6-Phospate
ATP

ADP

Fructose-1,6-biphospate

NAD
PGAL DHAP

1,3 biphosphoglycerate

ADP ATP

3-phosphoglycerate

2-phosphoglycerate

H2O

Phosphoenol pyruvate

ADP

ATP

pyruvate

To oxidation reduction stage of Aerobic Respirarion, Anaerobic

Electron Transport or Fermentation
Anaerobic Cellular
Respiration
 Some organisms thrive in environments with little or no
oxygen
 Marshes, bogs, gut of animals, sewage treatment ponds
 No oxygen used= ‘an’aerobic
 Results in no more ATP, final steps in these pathways
serve ONLY to regenerate NAD+ so it can return to
pick up more electrons and hydrogens in glycolysis.
 End products such as ethanol and CO2 (single cell
fungi (yeast) in beer/bread) or lactic acid (muscle
cells)
Aerobic Cellular
Respiration
 Oxygen required=aerobic
 2 more sets of reactions which occur in a
specialized structure within the cell called
the mitochondria
 1. Kreb’s Cycle
 2. Electron Transport Chain
Krebs Cycle
 Completes the breakdown of glucose
 Takes the pyruvate (3-carbons) and breaks it down,
the carbon and oxygen atoms end up in CO2 and
H2O
 Hydrogens and electrons are stripped and loaded
onto NAD+ and FAD to produce NADH and FADH2
 Production of only 2 more ATP but loads up
the coenzymes with H+ and electrons which
move to the 3rd stage
The Krebs Cycle
Electron Transport
System
 Electron carriers loaded with electrons and
protons from the Kreb’s cycle move to this
chain-like a series of steps (staircase).
 As electrons drop down stairs, energy released
to form a total of 32 ATP
 Oxygen waits at bottom of staircase, picks up
electrons and protons and in doing so
becomes water
Electron Transport
System
Energy Tally
 36 ATP for aerobic vs. 2 ATP for anaerobic

 Glycolysis 2 ATP

 Kreb’s 2 ATP

 Electron Transport 32 ATP

36 ATP
 Anaerobic organisms can’t be too energetic but
are important for global recycling of carbon
The Chloroplast
 The organelle responsible for photosynthesis.
 They are larger and more complex than
mitochondria.
 Contain their own genetic metabolic energy,
evolved by endosymbiosis, replicate by
division.
 Synthesize amino acids, fatty acids and lipid
component of their own membrane.
Structure and Functions:

 They are large organelle.

 Bounded by a double membrane called
chloroplast envelope.
 Thylakoid Membrane - forms a network of
flattened disk called Thylakoid.
 Grana – stacks of thylakoid.
 3 distinct internal compartment
 1.intermembrane Space
 2. Stroma
 3.Thylakoid lumen
Other Plastids

 Chromoplast –lack chlorophyll but

contain carotenoids.
 * responsible for yellow, orange & red
 of flowers, fruits
 Leucoplasts – are non pigmented
plastids
 * Amyloplast & Elaioplast ( stores
 Starch & & lipids.
Photosynthesis
 Photosynthesis in Overview
 Comes from the word Photo – meaning light
 Synthesis – meaning to make ( build complex
substance ( glucose ) from simple substance
 ( carbon dioxide & water.

Process by which plants and other autotrophs store the energy of

sunlight into sugars.
 Requires sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide.
 Overall equation:

6 CO2 + 6 H20  C6H12O6 + 6 O2

 Occurs in the leaves of plants in organelles called chloroplasts.

 Autotrophs: self feeders, organisms capable
of making their own food
 Method of converting sun energy into chemical
energy usable by cells
 Photoautotrophs: use sun energy e.g. plants
photosynthesis-makes organic compounds
(glucose) from light
 Chemoautotrophs: use chemical energy e.g.
bacteria that use sulfide or methane
chemosynthesis-makes organic compounds from
chemical energy contained in sulfide or methane
The chloroplast
- the machinery of
photosynthesis
 The chloroplast which is an organelle of
the cell that contains chlorophyll serves
as the machinery of the cell.
 Some primitive plants such as blue green
algae does not have an organize
chloroplast but contains grana that can
under go photosysnthesis.
The chlorophyll
- the agent of photosynthesis
 Chlorophyll molecules are embedded partially
in the protein disk of the grana and partially in
the lipid layer between them.
 Chlorophyll a – a bright bluish green pigment has a
molecule containing carbon, hydrogen,oxygen,
nitrogen and a single atom of magnesium that lies in
the center of the molecule. It has a chemical formula
of C55H72O5N4Mg.
 Chlorophyll b – yellowish green pigment formula
C55H70O6N4Mg
Simple Photosynthesis Overview
• The location and structure of chloroplasts
Chloroplast
LEAF CROSS SECTION MESOPHYLL CELL
LEAF

Mesophyll

CHLOROPLAST Intermembrane space

Outer
membrane

Granum Inner
membrane
Grana Stroma Thylakoid
Stroma Thylakoid compartment
2 Phases of
Photosynthesis
 1. Light Reaction – also known as light
phase, Photo phase, light dependent
reaction.

 2. Dark Reaction – Dark Phase,

Synthesis phase, Light Independent
Reaction
Phosphorylation
 Phosphorylation: The chemical addition of
a phosphate group (phosphorous and
oxygen) to a compound. i.e. adding Pi to
ADP to get ATP Photophosphorylation is
addition of a phosphate using the sun’s
energy!
 There are two types of
photophosphorylation;
 cyclic
 non-cyclic.
Cyclic Photophosphorylation

 • Cyclic
photophosphorylation
 probably occurs in plants when
there
 is too little NADP+ available
(more on
 this later).
 • Cyclic photophosphorylation
is also
 seen in certain photosynthetic
 bacteria. Note that the bacteria
have
 no chloroplasts. All structures are
 embedded in the membrane. The
 proton gradient is created
between the
 cell membrane and the capsule.
Cyclic Photophosphorylation
• Process for ATP generation associated with
some Photosynthetic Bacteria
• Reaction Center => 700 nm
Noncyclic Photophosphorylation
• Photosystem II regains electrons by splitting
water, leaving O2 gas as a by-productE
lec
Primary tro
n
electron acceptor tra
ns
po
rt
Primary
El
electron acceptor ec
tro
n
tra
n sp
or
t ch
ain

Photons

Energy for
synthesis of

PHOTOSYSTEM I

PHOTOSYSTEM II by chemiosmosis
The Light Reaction
 The 1st phase of photosynthesis.
 Occurs only in the light and requires
chlorophyll a.
 Light energy enters into this reaction.
 This happens only in a split of second.
• 2 important events :
• 1. The trapping of light.
• 2. The splitting of water
The Light Reaction
The Dark Reaction

 The transfer of energy from chlorophyll to

ATP during the light reactions, charges
the chloroplast for reactions to follow.
 This do not require light .
The Dark Reaction
Peroxisomes
 Peroxisomes are organelles present in almost all 
eukaryotic cells.
 They are small membrane enclosed organelle that
contain enzyme involved in a variety of reaction
including energy metabolism.
 They participate in the metabolism of fatty
of  acids and
many other metabolites
 They get rid of toxic peroxides.
 Bounded by a single membrane that separates their
content from the cytosol.
 Important in importing protein into the organelles and
aiding in proliferation.
 Formed from the endoplasmic reticulum.

 1967 – Christian de Duve – Belgian
Cytologist who discovered the
peroxisome of the cell.
 Prokaryotes do not have peroxisomes.
 It originates from the ER.
Functions :

 Contains oxidative enzymes such as

catalase, D – amino acid oxidase and
uric acid oxidase. ( humans do not
contain ).
 * Which is responsible for removing
hydrogen atom from specific organic
substrates, in an oxidative reaction
producing hydrogen peroxide.
 They are considered as catalase
 * Breakdown fatty acid molecules, in a process
called beta oxidation.
 Plays a role in the production of bile acids and
proteins.
 They contain enzyme required for the
synthesis of plasmalogens
 In plants:
 1. Responsible for conversion of stored fatty acids
to carbohydrates.( glyoxylate cycle )* in seeds
 2. Involve in photorespiration,
Deficiencies

 Peroxisomal disorders – a class or

condition that lead to disorders of lipid
metabolism and diseases of the nervous
system.
 X linked adrenoleukodystrophy- the most
frquent.
 Zellweger syndrome
 It's not that
easy being
green… but it
is essential for
life on earth!