Chapter 18: Wireless

Infrastructure
Instructor Materials

CCNP Enterprise: Core Networking

Chapter 18 Content
This chapter covers the following content:
Wireless LAN Topologies - This section describes autonomous, cloud-based,
centralized, embedded, and Mobility Express wireless architectures.
Pairing Lightweight APs and WLCs - This section explains the process that
lightweight APs must go through to discover and bind to a wireless LAN controller.
Leveraging Antennas for Wireless Coverage - This section provides an
overview of various antenna types and explains how each one alters the RF
coverage over an area.

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 2
Wireless LAN Topologies
• This chapter looks beyond a single AP to discuss the topologies that can be built with
many APs.
• The chapter also discusses the types of antennas you can connect to an AP to provide
wireless coverage for various areas and purposes.
• Finally, this chapter discusses how lightweight APs discover and join with wireless LAN
controllers in an enterprise network.

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 3
Wireless LAN Topologies
AP Modes
Cisco APs can operate in one of two modes:
• Autonomous - are self-sufficient and standalone
• Lightweight - can support several different network topologies, depending
on where the companion wireless LAN controllers (WLCs) are located

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 4
Wireless LAN Topologies
Autonomous Topology
Autonomous APs are self-contained, offering one
or more standalone basic service sets (BSSs).
They are an extension of a switched network,
connecting wireless SSIDs to wired VLANs at the
access layer.

Fig. 18-1, autonomous APs present two wireless

LANs with SSIDs wlan100 and wlan200 to the
wireless users. The APs also forward traffic
between the wireless LANs and two wired VLANs
100 and 200.

An autonomous AP must also be configured with

a management IP address and management
VLAN to enable remote management of the AP.

Each AP must be configured and maintained individually unless you leverage a management
platform such as Cisco Prime Infrastructure.
© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 5
Wireless LAN Topologies
Autonomous Topology (Cont.)
Because the data and management VLANs may
need to reach every autonomous AP, the network
configuration and efficiency can become
cumbersome as the network scales.
For example, you will likely want to offer the same
SSID on many APs so that wireless clients can
associate with that SSID in most any location or
while roaming between any two APs.
You may want to extend the VLAN and IP subnet to
each and every AP so that clients do not have to
request a new IP address for each new association. In Figure 18-2, two wireless users are associated
to the same autonomous AP. One can reach the
A topology using autonomous APs does have one other through the AP, without having to pass up
nice feature: a short and simple path for data to into the wired network. This is not always the
travel between the wireless and wired networks. case with lightweight AP topologies.
© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 6
Wireless LAN Topologies
Lightweight AP Topologies
In lightweight mode, an AP loses its self-sufficiency to
provide a working BSS for wireless users. It has to join
a WLC to become fully functional.

This is known as a split-MAC architecture, where the

AP handles most of the realtime 802.11 processes and
the WLC performs the management functions.

An AP and a WLC are joined by a logical pair of

CAPWAP tunnels that extend through the wired
network infrastructure. Control and data traffic are
transported across the tunnels.

Several topologies can be built from a WLC and a

collection of APs. These differ according to where the
WLC is located within the network.

Fig. 18-3, a WLC is placed in a central location, so it can maximize the number of APs joined to it. This is
known as a centralized or unified wireless LAN topology. Each AP has its own CAPWAP tunnel to the WLC.
© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 7
Wireless LAN Topologies
Lightweight AP Topologies - Centralized
A Cisco unified WLC meant for a large enterprise
can support up to 6000 APs.

The Layer 3 boundary for each data VLAN is

handled at or near the WLC, so the VLANs need
only exist at that location, indicated by the shaded
link.

Each AP still has its own unique management IP

address, but it connects to an access layer switch
via an access link rather than a trunk link. Even if
multiple VLANs and WLANs are involved, they are
carried over the same CAPWAP tunnel to and from
the AP. Therefore, the AP needs only a single IP
address to terminate the tunnel.
As a wireless user moves through the coverage areas of the four APs, he might associate with many
different APs in the access layer. Because all of the APs are joined to a single WLC, that WLC can easily
maintain the user’s connectivity to all other areas of the network as he moves around.
© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 8
Wireless LAN Topologies
Lightweight AP Topologies – Centralized (Cont.)
The traffic from one client must pass through the AP,
where it is encapsulated in the CAPWAP tunnel, and
then travel high up into the network to reach the WLC,
where it is unencapsulated and examined. The
process then reverses.

The length of the tunnel path can be a great concern

for lightweight APs.

The round-trip time (RTT) between an AP and a

controller should be less than 100 ms so that wireless
communication can be maintained in near real time. If
the path has more latency than that, the APs may
decide that the controller is not responding fast
enough, so they may disconnect and find another,
more responsive controller.

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Wireless LAN Topologies
Lightweight AP Topologies – Embedded Wireless Topology
A WLC can be located further down in the network
hierarchy.

Fig. 18-5, the WLC is co-located with an access layer

switch. This is known as an embedded wireless
network topology because the WLC is embedded in
the switch hardware.

With user access merged into one layer, it becomes

easier to apply common access and security policies.
Notice that each AP connects to an access switch for
network connectivity as well as split-MAC functionality,
so the CAPWAP tunnel becomes really short.

The embedded topology can be cost-effective because

the same switching platform is used for both wired and
wireless purposes. Ideally, each access layer switch
would have its own embedded WLC. A Cisco
embedded WLC typically supports up to 200 APs.
© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 10
Wireless LAN Topologies
Lightweight AP Topologies – Embedded Wireless Topology (Cont.)
If the CAPWAP tunnel is relatively short in an
embedded topology, that must mean wireless
devices can reach each other more
efficiently.
Fig. 18-6, shows, the traffic path from one
user to another must pass through an AP, the
access switch (and WLC), and back down
through the AP.
In contrast, traffic from a wireless user to a
central resource such as a data center or the
internet travels through the CAPWAP tunnel,
is unencapsulated at the access layer switch
(and WLC), and travels normally up through
the rest of the network layers.
© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 11
Wireless LAN Topologies
Lightweight AP Topologies – Mobility Express Network Topology
It is also possible to move the WLC even below
the access layer and into an AP.
Fig. 18-7, illustrates the Mobility Express
topology, where a fully functional Cisco AP also
runs software that acts as a WLC. This can be
useful in small scale environments, such as
small, midsize, or multi-site branch locations,
where you might not want to invest in dedicated
WLCs at all.
The AP that hosts the WLC forms a CAPWAP
tunnel with the WLC, as do any other APs at the
same location. A Mobility Express WLC can
support up to 100 APs.

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 12
Pairing Lightweight APs and
WLCs
• A Cisco lightweight wireless AP needs to be paired with a WLC to function.
• Each AP must discover and bind itself with a controller before wireless clients can be
supported.
• Cisco lightweight APs are designed to be “touch free,” but you have to configure the
switch port, where the AP connects, with the correct access VLAN, access mode, and
inline power settings, then the AP can power up and use a variety of methods to find a
viable WLC to join.

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 13
Pairing Lightweight APs and WLCs
AP States
A lightweight AP goes through a variety of states defined as part of the Control and Provisioning of Wireless
Access Points (CAPWAP) specification. The AP enters the states in a specific order; the sequence of states is
called a state machine:

1. AP boots - Once an AP receives power, it boots on a small IOS image so that it can work through the
remaining states and communicate over its network connection. The AP must also receive an IP address
from either a DHCP server or a static configuration so that it can communicate over the network.

2. WLC discovery - The AP goes through a series of steps to find one or more controllers that it might join.

3. CAPWAP tunnel - The AP attempts to build a CAPWAP tunnel with one or more controllers. The tunnel will
provide a secure Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS) channel for subsequent AP-WLC control
messages. The AP and WLC authenticate each other through an exchange of digital certificates.

4. WLC join - The AP selects a WLC from a list of candidates and then sends a CAPWAP Join Request
message to it. The WLC replies with a CAPWAP Join Response message.

5. Download image - The WLC informs the AP of its software release. If the AP’s own software is a different
release, the AP downloads a matching image from the controller, reboots to apply the new image, and then
returns to step 1.
© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 14
Pairing Lightweight APs and WLCs
AP States (Cont.)
6. Download config - The AP pulls configuration
parameters down from the WLC and can update
existing values with those sent from the controller.
Settings include RF, service set identifier (SSID),
security, and quality of service (QoS) parameters.

7. Run state - Once the AP is fully initialized, the

WLC places it in the “run” state. The AP and WLC
then begin providing a BSS and begin accepting
wireless clients.

8. Reset - If an AP is reset by the WLC, it tears

down existing client associations and any
CAPWAP tunnels to WLCs. The AP then reboots
and starts through the entire state machine again.

If there is a chance an AP could rehome with another WLC, you should make sure that both WLCs are running
the same code release. Otherwise, the AP move should happen at a planned time, like during a maintenance
window. You can predownload a new release to the controller’s APs prior to rebooting the WLC.
© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 15
Pairing Lightweight APs and WLCs
Discovering a WLC
To discover a WLC, an AP sends a unicast CAPWAP Discovery Request to a controller’s IP over UDP port 5246
or a broadcast to the local subnet. If the controller exists, it returns a CAPWAP Discovery Response to the AP.

An AP must discover any WLCs that it can join without any preconfiguration. Several methods of discovery are
used and the sequence of discovery is as follows:

1. The AP broadcasts a CAPWAP Discovery Request on its local wired subnet. Any WLCs on the subnet
answer with a CAPWAP Discovery Response.

2. An AP can be “primed” with up to 3 controllers: a primary, a secondary, and a tertiary. These are stored in
NVRAM so that the AP can remember them after a reboot. Otherwise, if an AP has previously joined a WLC,
it may have stored up to 8 out of a list of 32 WLC addresses that it received from the last controller it joined.
The AP attempts to contact as many controllers as possible to build a list of candidates.

3. The DHCP server that supplies an IP can also send DHCP option 43 to suggest WLC addresses.

4. The AP attempts to resolve the name CISCO-CAPWAP-CONTROLLER.localdomain with a DNS request

(where localdomain is the domain name learned from DHCP). If the name resolves to an IP address, the
controller attempts to contact a WLC at that address.

5. If none of the steps has been successful, the AP resets itself and restarts the discovery process again.
© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 16
Pairing Lightweight APs and WLCs
Discovering a WLC (Cont.)
If the AP and controllers lie on different subnets, you can configure the local router to relay any
broadcast requests on UDP port 5246 to specific controller addresses.
Use the following configuration commands:
router(config)# ip forward-protocol udp 5246
router(config)# interface vlan number
router(config-int)# ip helper-address WLC1-MGMT-ADDR
router(config-int)# ip helper-address WLC2-MGMT-ADDR

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 17
Pairing Lightweight APs and WLCs
Selecting a WLC
Joining a WLC involves sending it a CAPWAP Join Request and waiting for it to return a CAPWAP Join
Response. From that point on, the AP and WLC build a DTLS tunnel to secure their CAPWAP control messages.

The WLC selection process consists of the following three steps:

1. If the AP has previously joined a controller and has been configured or “primed” with a primary, secondary,
and tertiary controller, it tries to join those controllers in succession.

2. If the AP does not know of any candidate controller, it tries to discover one. If a controller has been
configured as a master controller, it responds to the AP’s request.

3. The AP attempts to join the least-loaded WLC, to load balance APs across a set of controllers. During the
discovery phase, each controller reports its load—the ratio of the number of currently joined APs to the total
AP capacity.

The least-loaded WLC is the one with the lowest ratio. If the controller already has the maximum number of APs
joined to it, it rejects any additional APs.

To provide flexibility in supporting APs on an oversubscribed controller, you can configure the APs with a priority
value. Once a controller is full of APs, it rejects an AP with the lowest priority to make room for a new one that
has a higher priority.
© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 18
Pairing Lightweight APs and WLCs
Maintaining WLC Availability
If a controller full of 1000 APs fails, all 1000 APs must detect the failure, discover other controllers, and then
select the least-loaded one to join. During that time, wireless clients can be left stranded with no connectivity.

The most deterministic approach is to use the primary, secondary, and tertiary controller fields in every AP.

Once an AP joins a controller, it sends keepalive messages to the controller over the wired network. By default,
keepalives are sent every 30 seconds. If a keepalive is not answered, an AP escalates by sending four more
keepalives at 3-second intervals. If it does not answer, the AP presumes that the controller has failed. The AP
then moves quickly to find a successor to join.

Using default values, an AP can detect controller failure in 35 seconds. Using minimum values, failure can be
detected in only 6 seconds.

WLCs also support high availability (HA) with stateful switchover (SSO) redundancy. One controller takes on the
active role and the other a hot standby mode. The APs only need to know the active primary controller.

The active unit keeps CAPWAP tunnels, AP states, client states, configurations, and image files all in sync with
the hot standby unit. The active controller also synchronizes the state of each associated client that is in the RUN
state with the hot standby controller. If the active controller fails, the standby will already have the current state
information for each AP and client, making the failover process transparent to the end users.
© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 19
Pairing Lightweight APs and WLCs
Cisco AP Modes
From the WLC, you can configure a lightweight AP to operate in one of the following modes:
• Local - The default lightweight mode that offers one or more functioning BSSs on a specific channel. During
times when it is not transmitting, the AP scans the other channels to measure the level of noise, measure
interference, discover rogue devices, and match against intrusion detection system (IDS) events.
• Monitor - The AP does not transmit at all, but its receiver is enabled to act as a dedicated sensor. The AP
checks for IDS events, detects rogue access points, and determines the position of stations through location-
based services.
• FlexConnect - An AP at a remote site can locally switch traffic between an SSID and a VLAN if its CAPWAP
tunnel to the WLC is down and if it is configured to do so.
• Sniffer - An AP dedicates its radios to receiving 802.11 traffic from other sources, much like a sniffer or
packet capture device. The captured traffic is then forwarded to a PC running network analyzer software such
as LiveAction Omnipeek or Wireshark, where it can be analyzed further.
• Rogue detector - An AP dedicates itself to detecting rogue devices by correlating MAC addresses heard on
the wired network with those heard over the air. Rogue devices are those that appear on both networks.

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 20
Pairing Lightweight APs and WLCs
Cisco AP Modes (Cont.)
• Bridge - An AP becomes a dedicated bridge (point-to-point or point-to-multipoint) between two networks. Two
APs in bridge mode can be used to link two locations separated by a distance. Multiple APs in bridge mode
can form an indoor or outdoor mesh network.
• Flex+Bridge - FlexConnect operation is enabled on a mesh AP.
• SE-Connect - The AP dedicates its radios to spectrum analysis on all wireless channels. You can remotely
connect a PC running software such as MetaGeek Chanalyzer or Cisco Spectrum Expert to the AP to collect
and analyze the spectrum analysis data to discover sources of interference.
A lightweight AP is normally in local mode when it is providing BSSs and allowing client devices to associate to
wireless LANs. When an AP is configured to operate in one of the other modes, local mode (and the BSSs) is
disabled.

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 21
Leveraging Antennas for
Wireless Coverage
• One type of antenna cannot fit every application.
• Antennas come in many sizes and shapes, each with its own gain value and intended
purpose.
• The following section describes antenna characteristics in more detail.

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 22
Leveraging Antennas for Wireless Coverage
Radiation Patterns
• Antenna gain is normally a comparison of one antenna
against an isotropic antenna and is measured in dBi
(decibel-isotropic).
• An isotropic antenna does not actually exist because it is
ideal, perfect, and impossible to construct.
• An isotropic antenna is shaped like a tiny round point.
• When an alternating current is applied, an RF signal is
produced, and the electromagnetic waves are radiated
equally in all directions.
• The energy produced by the antenna takes the form of an
ever-expanding sphere.
• A plot that shows the relative signal strength around an
antenna is known as the radiation pattern.
© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 23
Leveraging Antennas for Wireless Coverage
Radiation Patterns (Cont.)
• The XY plane, which lies flat along the horizon, is known
as the H plane, or the horizontal (azimuth) plane.
• The XZ plane, which lies vertically along the elevation of
the sphere, is known as the E plane, or elevation plane.
• The outline of each plot can be recorded on a polar plot.
• The outermost circle usually represents the strongest
signal strength, and the inner circles represent weaker
signal strength.
• The antenna is placed at the center of the polar plots.
• As you decide to place APs in their actual locations, you
might have to look at various antenna patterns and try to
figure out whether the antenna is a good match for the
environment you are trying to cover with an RF signal.
© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 24
Leveraging Antennas for Wireless Coverage
Gain
• Antenna amplify or add gain to the signal by shaping the RF energy as it is propagated into free
space. The gain of an antenna is a measure of how effectively it can focus RF energy in a certain
direction.
• Think of a zero gain antenna producing a perfect sphere. If the sphere is made of rubber, you could
press on it in various locations and change its shape. As the sphere is deformed, it expands in other
directions. Figure 18-11 shows some simple examples, along with some examples of gain values.
• The gain is lower for omnidirectional antennas, which are made to cover a widespread area, and
higher for directional antennas, which are built to cover more focused areas.
• The gain is typically not indicated on either E or H plane radiation pattern plots. The only way to find
an antenna’s gain is to look at the manufacturer’s specifications.

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 25
Leveraging Antennas for Wireless Coverage
Beamwidth
Many manufacturers list the beamwidth of an antenna
as a measure of the antenna’s focus.

Beamwidth is normally listed in degrees for both the H

and E planes.
The beamwidth is determined by finding the strongest
point on the plot, which is usually somewhere on the
outer circle. Next, the plot is followed in either direction
until the value decreases by 3 dB, indicating the point
where the signal is one-half the strongest power.

A line is drawn from the center of the plot to intersect

each 3 dB point, and then the angle between the two
lines is measured.
Figure 18-12 shows a simple example. The H plane has a beamwidth of 30 degrees, and the E
plane has a beamwidth of 55 degrees.
© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 26
Leveraging Antennas for Wireless Coverage
Polarization
A wave has two components: an electrical field wave and a magnetic field wave.

The electrical portion of the wave will always leave the antenna in a certain orientation. If the wire is
pointing vertically it will produce a wave that oscillates up and down in a vertical direction.

The electrical field wave’s orientation is called the antenna polarization.

Antennas that produce vertical oscillation are vertically polarized; those that produce horizontal
oscillation are horizontally polarized.

Antenna polarization at the transmitter must be matched to the polarization at the receiver. If the
polarization is mismatched, the received signal can be severely degraded.

In Fig. 18-13 The transmitter and receiver

along the top both use vertical polarization, so
the received signal is optimized.
The pair along the bottom is mismatched,
causing the signal to be poorly received.

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 27
Leveraging Antennas for Wireless Coverage
Omnidirectional Antennas
An omnidirectional antenna tends to propagate a signal equally in
all directions away from the cylinder but not along the cylinder’s
length.

The result is a donut-shaped pattern that extends further in the H

plane than in the E plane.

This type of antenna is well suited for broad coverage of a large

room or floor area, with the antenna located in the center.

Because an omnidirectional antenna distributes the RF energy

throughout a broad area, it has a relatively low gain.

A common type of omnidirectional antenna is the dipole.

As its name implies, the dipole has two separate wires that
radiate an RF signal when an alternating current is applied
across them.

Dipoles usually have a gain of around +2 to +5 dBi.

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 28
Leveraging Antennas for Wireless Coverage
Omnidirectional Antennas (Cont.)

To reduce the size of an omnidirectional

antenna, many Cisco wireless access
points (APs) have integrated antennas that
are hidden inside the device’s smooth
case. For example, the AP shown in Figure
18-17 has six tiny antennas hidden inside
it.

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 29
Leveraging Antennas for Wireless Coverage
Directional Antennas
Directional antennas have a higher gain than omnidirectional
antennas because they focus the RF energy in one general
direction.

Typical applications include elongated indoor areas, such as

the rooms along a long hallway or the aisles in a warehouse.
They can also be used to cover outdoor areas out away from
a building or long distances between buildings.
If they are mounted against a ceiling, pointing downward,
they can cover a small floor area to reduce an AP’s cell size.

Patch antennas have a flat rectangular shape, as shown in

Figure 18-19, so that they can be mounted on a wall or
ceiling.

Patch antennas have a typical gain of about 6 to 8 dBi in the

2.4 GHz band and 7 to 10 dBi at 5 GHz.
© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 30
Leveraging Antennas for Wireless Coverage
Yagi Antennas
Figure 18-22 shows the Yagi–Uda antenna,
named after its inventors, and more commonly
known as the Yagi.
Although its outer case is shaped like a thick
cylinder, the antenna is actually made up of
several parallel elements of increasing length.
A Yagi produces a more focused egg-shaped
pattern that extends out along the antenna’s
length, as shown in Figure 18-24.
Yagi antennas have a gain of about 10 to 14 dBi.

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 31
Leveraging Antennas for Wireless Coverage
Parabolic Dish Antennas
In a line-of-sight wireless path, an RF signal must be
propagated a long distance using a narrow beam.

Highly directional antennas focus the RF energy along one

narrow elliptical pattern.

Dish antennas, as shown in Fig. 18-25, use a parabolic

dish to focus received signals onto an antenna mounted at
the center.

The parabolic shape causes any waves arriving from the

line of sight will be reflected onto the center antenna
element that faces the dish.

Transmitted waves are just the reverse. They are aimed at

the dish and reflected such that they are propagated away
from the dish along the line of sight.

The focused pattern gives the antenna a gain of between

20 and 30 dBi—the highest of all the wireless antennas.
© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 32
Prepare for the Exam

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Prepare for the Exam
Key Topics for Chapter 18
Description
Wireless Network Topology Using Autonomous APs
WLC Location in a Centralized Wireless Network Topology
WLC Location in an Embedded Wireless Network Topology
WLC Location in a Mobility Express Wireless Network Topology
AP controller discovery states
AP controller discovery steps
Cisco lightweight AP modes
Plotting the Radiation Pattern of an Isotropic Antenna

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 34
Prepare for the Exam
Key Terms for Chapter 18
Description Description
Autonomous AP E plane
Beamwidth Embedded WLC deployment
CAPWAP Gain
Centralized WLC deployment H plane
Dipole Integrated antenna
Directional Antenna Lightweight AP

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 35
Prepare for the Exam
Key Terms for Chapter 18 (Cont.)

Description Description
Local mode Polarization
Mobility Express WLC deployment Radiation pattern
Omnidirectional antenna Split-MAC architecture
Parabolic dish antenna Unified WLC deployment
Patch antenna Wireless LAN Controller (WLC)
Polar plot Yagi antenna

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 36