Theories of Grammar and

Applications in Language Teaching

The simple sentence

Complementation of verbs and adjectives
GROUP 4:
1. Điêu Thị Thu Phương
2. Lê Thị Bích Ngọc
3. Lê Lệ Tuyết
4. Nguyễn Thị Quỳnh Nam
5. Lê Thị Kim Oanh
 CONTENTS
CHAPTER 10: THE SIMPLE SENTENCES
1. Elements of the simple sentences
2. Relationships between the Subject and the Verb

CHAPTER 16: COMPLEMENTATION OF VERBS AND ADJECTIVES

3. Multi-word verbs: phrasal, prepositional, phrasal-prepositional verbs
4. Complementation of verbs
5. Complementation of adjectives (self-confer)
6. Complementation of abstract nouns (self-confer)
 CHAPTER 10: THE SIMPLE SENTENCES

1. Elements of the simple sentences

2. Relationships between the Subject and the Verb

(pages 719 – 799)

CHAPTER 10:

The simple sentence

( P. 7 1 9 - 7 5 3 )

Presenter: Điêu Thị Thu Phương

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE (Part 10.1 => 10.33 / Page 719-753)

Clause patterns

Syntactic functions of clause elements

Order of clause elements

Semantic roles of clause elements

 SENTENCE
Sentence is a complete unit of meaning.

The simple sentence

The simple sentence consists of a single independent clause.
 The simple sentence
- A simple sentence consists of one/a single indipendent
clause often with a “subject” and a “predicate”.
- The subject is what the sentence is about, and the predicate
is a comment about the subject.
e.g: You can borrow my car.
subject predicate
 NOTE p.719-720
a.
- You can borrow my car if you need it. [1]
- You can borrow the car that belongs to my sister. [2]
b.
 Clause structures
Syntactic functions of 5 sentence elements:
1. Subject (S)
2. Verb (V)
3. Object (O) - direct object (Od)
- indirect object (Oi)
4. Compliment (C) - subject compliment (Cs)
- object compliment (Co)
5. Adverbial (A) - subject-related (As)
- 0bject-related (Ao)
Major clause types
• SV; SVO; SVC; SVA; SVOO; SVOC; SVOA
• ACTIVITY: DO MATCHING
1. I must send my parents an anniversary card.
2. You can put the dish on the table.
3. The sun is shinning.
4. Your dinner seems ready.
5. Most students have founds her reasonably helpful.
6. That lecture bored me.
7. My office is in the next building.
 Multiple class membership of verbs
- A given verb can belong in its various senses, to a number of different class, and hence
enter into a number of different clause types.
- The verb “get” is a particularly versatile, being excluded only from Type SV.
SVO He’ll get a surprise.
SVC He’s getting angry.
SVA He got through the window.
SVOO He got her a splendid present.
SVOC He got his shoes and socks wet.
SVOA He got himself into trouble.
 Note for Multiple class membership of verbs

- Through the multiple class membership of verbs, ambiguities can arise.

e.g: I found her an entertaining partner.
She called him her favourite waiter.
 They could be interpreted either as belonging to the SVOC or SVOO types.

- In informal (especially dialectal), “get” is used even as an intransitive verb (= “leave at

once) in Type SV:
She told him to get.
 SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS OF CLAUSE ELEMENTS

1. Subject (S)
2. Verb (V)
3. Object (O) - direct object (Od)
- indirect object (Oi)
4. Compliment (C) - subject compliment (Cs)
- object compliment (Co)
5. Adverbial (A) - subject-related (As)
- 0bject-related (Ao)
 SUBJECT OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT (Cs ADVERBIAL
(Od or Oi) and Co)
noun phrase/ a noun phrase/ a a noun phrase/ an adverb phrase,
Form nominal clause nominal clause adjective phrase/ a relation
*Has a co-referential prepositional
with S or phrase,
O:
nominal
+ Cs ~ theclause adverbial clause, or NP
S, and the V = copular
e.g: normally follows the + Cs:e.g: My glass
follows the S is
andempty.
is capable of occurring
- Everybody [S] has left subject and the verb. + CoV.~ the Od
the in more than on
[V] for the day. e.g: + Co:e.g:
follows the them
We find Od very position in the clause.
pleasant.
=> occurs before the I gave him [Oi] my
verb in declarative address [Od].
Position clauses => The Od normally
- Has [op] everybody comes before the Od.
[S] left for the day?
=> occurs after the
operator in questions
 SUBJECT OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT (Cs ADVERBIAL
(Od or Oi) and Co)
Has number and - The complement is generally optional
person concord, where CANNOT become S (may be added to or
applicable, with the through the passive removed from a
VP. transformation. sentence without
- With SVOC type, the affecting its
Od can of course be acceptability), except
Syntactic made the S of passive for the obligatory
function clause. adverbial.
e.g:
His friends call him Ted.
[Ted is Co]
~ He is called Ted by his
friends.
[Ted is Cs]
Notes: (page 727-728)

a.“indirect object”
Eg: Pour a drink for me.
Pour me a drink.
b. Reflexive pronoun => object complement.
Eg: I prefer George myself.
I prefer George his normal self.
 ORDER OF CLAUSE ELEMENTS

The order of the clause elements is relatively fixed, in general following the sequence in
the designation of the seven clause types (SVO, SVC, SVOO…)
But sometimes a number of factors may interfere with the order:
- The verb can be first.
e.g: Close the door.
- The subject is elliptical (it can be missed out).
e.g: Closing the door, she sneaked into the room and grabbed the cookies.

p.739
 SEMANTIC ROLES OF CLAUSE ELEMENTS

* Participants:
In term of meaning, every clause describes a situation in which a number of
participants are involves.
e.g: The child tore my book. (SVO)
 The sentence contains a verb describing the nature of action:
+ a subject denoting an AGENTIVE PARTICIPANT
+ a direct object denoting an AFFECTED PARTICIPANT.

p.740
 SEMANTIC ROLES OF CLAUSE ELEMENTS

• Semantic roles of SUBJECT

• Semantic roles of OBJECT

• Semantic roles of COMPLEMENT

 Semantic roles of SUBJECT

1. Age ntive subject 6. Positioner subject

7. Locative subject
2 . External causer subject
3. Instrument subject 8. Temporal subject

4. Affected subject 9. Eventive subject

5. Recipient subject 10. Prop “It” subject

Agentive subject (most typical)
The animate being instigating or causing the happening denoted by the
verb.
e.g: John open the door.
age ntive subject
External causer subject:
It expresses the unwitting (generally inanimate) cause of an event.
e.g: The electric shock killed him.
external causer subject
Instrument subject:
The entity (generally inanimate) an agent uses to perform an action or instigate
a process.
e.g: A stone broke his glasses.
instrument subject
Affected subject:
That is, one being affected by the event.
e.g: The door opened.
affected subject
With intransitive verbs, the subject also frequently has the AFFECTED role elsewhere
typical of the direct object.
e.g: Jack fell down (accidentally).
The pencil was lying on the table.
The term “affected” has been extended generally to subject of copular verbs.
e.g: The pencil was on the table.
 Note for Subject as External causer, Instrument, and Affected

[a] The role of EXTERNAL CAUSER has also been termed “force”
[b] A different analysis allows more than one role for one element and allows for the
repetition of the same role in one clause. In one such analysis, the EXTERNAL
CAUSER and AFFECTED roles can be combined with the AGENTIVE role.
e.g: The soldiers [agentive/ external cause] paraded.
Recipient subject
- One that receive the happening.
- This role of subject is found with such verbs as have, own, possess, benefit (from)…,
as is indicatedby the following relation:
e.g: Mr Smith has given his son a radio.
[So now his son has a radio.]
- Perceptual verbs see, hear require a recipient subject. Verbs taste, smell, feel
have both an agentive meaning and a recipient meaning.
e.g: Foolishly, he tasted the soup.
- Verbs indicating cognition or emotion may also require recipient subject:
e.g: I likes the play.
 Note for Recipient subject

[a] A passive form of HAVE occasionally occurs in idioms:

e.g: A good time was had by all; Have you ever been had? <informal>
[ tricked; also with sexual meaning]
[b] Alternatively, subjects with perceptual, cognitive, and emotive verbs might be
assigned the role of “experiencer”
Positioner subject
- The subject may have the role of POSITIONER with:
+ intransitive stance verbs: sit, stand, lie, live [‘dwell’], stay, remain
e.g: They are staying at a motel.
+ transitive stance verbs: carry, hold, keep, wear
e.g: He kept himself upright.
- Contrast the role of subjects in these two sentences:
Your sister [positioner] is lying on the bed. [stance]
Your book [affected] is lying on the bed [state]
Locative subject:
- One that denotes location.
e.g: My tent sleeps four people.
locative subject
[‘Four people can sleep in my tent’]
- Verb following locative subjects normally have no passive and progressive form.
e.g: The bag holds seven pounds.
~ *Seven pounds are held by the bag.
~ *The bag is holding seven pounds.
Temporal subject:

One that denotes time.

e.g: Yesterday was a holiday. [‘It was a holiday yesterday’]
temporal subject
Eventive subject: One that denotes events.
Example 1: The match is tomorrow.
eventive subject  deverbal
Example 2: The Norman invasion took place in 1066.
eventive subject  nominalization

* The noun at the head of the noun phrase is commonly deverbal or

nominalization.
Prop ‘it’ subject:
- The subject function may be assumed by the ‘prop’ word it, which has little or no
semantic content.
- Prop it mainly occurs in clauses signifying:
(a) time e.g: It’s ten o’clock.
(b) atmosphere conditions e.g: It’s very hot in here.
(c) distance e.g: It’s not very far to York.
Activity: Identify Semantic roles of subject
She opened the door.
This key can open the door.
The door opens.
She has a new shirt
The room accommodates 20 people
Tomorrow is my birthday.
The meeting ended successfully.
It’s nice to meet you.
Semantic roles of OBJECT

1. Locative object

2. Resultant object

3. Cognate object

4. Eventive object

5. Instrumental object

6. Affected Indirect object

 Locative object
- The most typical role of the Od: affected participant.
- The Od may have a LOCATIVE role with such verbs as: walk, swim, pass, jump, turn,
leave, reach, surround, cross, climb
e.g:
We walked the streets. [‘We walked through the streets.’]
The horse jumped the fence. [‘The horse jumped over the fence.’]
- These objects may seem to be adverbials with an omitted preposition.
e.g: We stayed three days. [‘We stayed within three days.’]
- Object have their ability to assume subject role in a corresponding passive clause.
e.g: The fence was jumped by the horse.
 Note for Locative object

- Include here locative objects after such verb as: occupy and inhabit (where no
preposition)
We occupy a spacious apartment.
They had inhabited the island for over a century.
- BrE may have a locative object after visit:
They are visiting Amsterdam.
- In informal AmE, visit with is used in the meaning ‘chat with’.
I was visiting with Carol yesterday outside the bank.
 Resultant object
- A resultant object is an object whose referent exists only by virtue of the activity
indicated by the verb.
e.g: Baird invented television.
I baked a cake.
- With an agentive subject and an affected object  may capture the meaning
e.g: X destroyed Y  X did something to Y
- This does not apply to a resultant object.
e.g: “Baird invented television.”
 does not imply “Baird did something to television.”
 Note for Resultant object

Other terms for the resultant object:

+ object of result
e.g: I baked a cake. (a cake is resultant)
+ effected object
e.g: I baked some potatoes. (some potatoes is affected)
Contrast similarly:
She cooked a meal. [resultant]
She cooked some carrots. [affected]
 Cognate object
- In this type of object, the noun head is semantically and often morphologically
related to the verb.
e.g: + sing a song (a song is a cognate object)
+ think a thought (a thought is a cognate object)
Its semantic function is to repeat , wholly or partially, the meaning of the verb.
- A cognate object is similar to a resultant object in that it refers to an event
indicated by the verb:
e.g: + Chris will sing a song for us.
+ She lived a good life.
 Note for Cognate object

- The object of “ran a race” might be classed as:

+ a cognate object
+ a locative object (in being replaceable by a prepositional phrase: ran in a race)
- There are rare cases in which it is the meaning of the subject that is presupposed
by the verb:
e.g: The frost froze hard.
Day dawned.
The wind is blowing.
 Instrumental object
The object may occasionally be instrumental.
e.g: We employ a computer for our calculations.
She is playing the piano.
He nodded his head.
Note for Instrumental object
Occasionally the notion of instrument is incorporated into the verb:
He headed the ball into the goal. [‘He hit the ball with his head…’]
He kicked the ball into the goal. [‘He hit the ball with his foot…’]
This applies to nod in “He nodded his head.”  his head would be implied if
omitted
 Affected indirect object
- The indirect object normally takes the role of recipient. It occasionally takes an
affected role with a few of the verbs that combine with an eventive object.
- The most common verb in the latter construction is give:
She gave me a push. [‘She pushed me’]
I gave Helen a nudge. [‘I nudged Helen’]
Give the car a push. [‘Push the car’]
- Unlike the recipient Oi, the affected Oi is not normally paraphrasable by a
prepositional phrase:
I gave Helen a nudge.
#? I gave a nudge to Henlen.
 Note for Affected indirect object
- In this use, give may be compared with get, have, and receive in a parallel sense:
I got a surprise.
The car has had a polish.
I received a shock.
There is also an interesting equivalence of:
They gave/shot each other glances. - They exchanged glances.
[‘They glanced at each other’]
- We should include here metaphorical uses of other verbs:
e.g: I taught him a lesson. [roughly ‘I disciplined him.’]
- The Oi has the role of ‘comitative’ [‘together with’] or perhaps ‘opposition’
e.g: I played Sam a game of chess. [‘I play a game of chess with/ against Sam’]
Activity: Identify Semantic roles of object
We open the door.
He invented the phone.
He passed the building.
We paid him a visit.
We gave him some money.
 Semantic roles of COMPLEMENT

- The typical semantic role of a subject complement and an object

complement is that of ATTRIBUTE.
- There are 2 subtypes of role for the attribute:
1. Identification
e.g: Kevin is my brother.
Brenda became their accountant.
2. Characterization
e.g: Martha was a good student.
The operation seemed a success.
Three syntactic features are associated with this semantic distinction:
(a) Only identification attributes allow reversal of S and C without affecting the
semantic relations in the clause, if the copular is BE.
e.g: Kevin is my brother. ~ My brother is Kevin.
(b) Only characterization attributes can also be realized by adj phrase.
(c) Identification attributes are associated with definite NP.
NP used as characterization attributes are indefinite.
The same semantic distinction applies to object complements.
The Cs reversal cannot take place, but we can test for its posibility by forming a clause
from the O and the C.
e.g: I made Maurice my assistant.
~ Maurice is my assistant.
~ My assistant is Maurice.
 Note for Attribute

If the identification attribute is a NP with an optionally omitted determiner, S – C

reversal cannot occur:
Joan is president of the company.
Contrast:
Joan is the president of the company.
~ The resident of the company is Joan.
p.754
 CONCLUSION
* A simple sentence consists of one clause often with a “subject” and a “predicate”.
* Syntactic features of 5 sentence elements: S, V, O, C, A
* Order of the clause elements
* Semantic functions of clause elements:
+ Subject: + Object + Complement
1. Agentive 1. Locative 1. Identification
2. External causer 2. Characterization
2. Resultant
3. Instrument
4. Affected 3. Cognate
5. Recipient 4. Eventive
6. Positioner 5. Instrumental
7. Locative 6. Affected Oi
8. Temporal
9. Eventive
10. Prop “It”
 Chapter 10:
The Simple Sentence
Quirk, R. et al. (1985). A comprehensive grammar of the English language.
New York: Longman.

1. Elements of the simple sentences

2. Relationships between the Subject and the Verb
(10.34 – 10.70, p. 755-799)
Presenter: Lê Thị Bích Ngọc
CONTENTS

• Part 1: Subject-verb concord (pp. 755-766)

• Part 2: Other types of concord (pp. 767-768)
• Part 3: Semantic restrictions (pp.771-772)
• Part 4: Vocatives (pp.773-774)
• Part 5: Negation (pp.775-799)
 PART 1. SUBJECT-VERB
CONCORD
I. General rule
II. Principles of grammatical concord, notional concord and
proximity
III. Collective nouns and notional concord
IV. Coordinated subject
V. Indefinite expressions as subject
VI. Concord of person
Summary
 SUBJECT-VERB CONCORD

•Concord (Agreement) = the relationship between 2 grammatical units

 one displays a particular feature that accords with a displayed feature in
the other.

•Most important type of concord in English: concord of 3rd person number

between Subject and Verb.
 I. General rule (1)
• A singular subject requires a singular verb.
• A plural subject requires a plural verb.
• Subject = noun phrase (NP)  the phrase counts as singular if it head is
singular.
• Finite and nonfinite clauses generally count as singular:
e.g: How you got there doesn’t concern me.
• Prepositional phrases and adverbs functioning as subject also count as
singular:
e.g: In the evening is best for me.
 I. General rule (2)

• Nominal relative clauses: with the determiners what and whatever, the
concord depends on the number of the determined noun:

e.g: What were supposed to be new proposals were in fact modifications

of earlier ones.
Whatever book a Times reviewer praises sells well.
 Note for Subject-Verb concord (1)
A subject which is not clearly semantically plural requires a singular verb.
• Singular nouns ending with the –s of the plural inflection:
e.g: Measles is sometimes serious.
• Plural nouns lacking the inflection:
e.g: Our people are complaining.
• Plural phrases count as singular if they are used as names, titles,
quotations:
e.g: Crime and Punishment is perhaps the best constructed of
Dostoyevsky’s novels.
 Note for Subject-Verb concord (2)

• These following nouns can be treated as singular or plural (cf. 5.91, 5.98):
data, media, criteria, phenomena
• Zero plural nouns do not display number (cf. 5.86)  number differences
manifest through pronoun reference:
The sheep jumped over the fence, didn’t it?
they?
• -s is the regular inflection for singular in the verb but for plural in the noun.
II. Principles of grammatical concord, notional concord and proximity (1)

• Grammatical concord: the rule that the verb matches its subjects in number.
• Notional concord: agreement of verb with subject according to the notion of
number rather than with the actual presence of the grammatical marker for
that notion: (Tìm hiểu danh từ tập hợp)
The government have broken all their promises. (BrE)
• Proximity (Attraction): agreement of verb with a closely preceding NP in
preference to agreement with the head of the NP that functions as subject.
? No one except his own supporters agree with him.
 Areas where concord causes some problems (1)

• Where the subject contains a collective noun head:

 Use of singular with subjects that are plural NPs of quantity or
measure:
e.g: Ten dollars is all I have left.
Fifteen years represents a long period of his life.
 Areas where concord causes some problems (2)

• Coordination:
 Certain determiners agree in number with their noun heads: that idea,
those ideas.
Exceptions:
Measure NPs: that five dollars, a happy three months

A few and a good many functions as units:

A few days, a good many friends
 Areas where concord causes some problems (3)

• An indefinite expression:
 Grammatical concord is usually obeyed for more than and many a (conflict
with notional concord):
(1) More than a thousand inhabitants have signed the proposal.
(2) More than one member has protested against the proposal.
(3) Many a member has protested against the proposal.
 III. Collective nouns and notional concord

• Singular collective nouns may be notionally plural.

• In BrE the verb may be either singular or plural:
e.g: The audience were enjoying every minute of it. (1)
The audience was enormous. (2)
• AmE generally treats singular collective nouns as singular, but some terms
may take plural verbs:
e.g: The public has a right to know.
But also: The public have a right to know.
 Note for Collective nouns and notional concord

• When a noun = a collection of people has plural concord  the pronouns

for which it is antecedent tend to be who/whom/they/them rather than
which/it:
e.g: A family who quarrel among themselves
• Couple in the sense of two persons normally has a plural verb. When it
denotes a unit, the singular verb is used:
e.g: The couple are happily married.
Each couple was asked to complete a form.
 IV. Coordinated subject (1) Coordination with and

Coordination: cases that correspond to fuller coordinate forms  A plural

verb is used:
• Even if each conjoin is singular:
e.g: Tom and Alice are now ready.
• In asyndetic coordination (without a coordinator):
e.g: His camera, his radio, his money were confiscated by the customs
officials.
• Conjoins expressing a mutual relationship:
e.g: Your problem and mine are similar.
What I say and do are two different things.
 Note for Coordination with and (1)
• Singular NP + etc, and so on, and so forth  a plural V is normal:
e.g: The size etc are less important for our purposes.
• Preposed each or every requires a singular V:
e.g: Every adult and every child was holding a flag.
Each of them has signed the petition.
But: They have each signed the petition.
 Note for Coordination with and (2)
• Respective and respectively occur in coordination, but not in coordinative
apposition.
• Arithmetical sums may be used with a singular or plural verb:
e.g. Two and two is/are four.
Ten times five is/are fifty.
Two fives makes/make ten.
But: Two fives are ten.
Ten minus two is eight.
Ten into fifty is five.
 Coordination with and
Coordination within a singular subject (1)

• A singular noncount noun head may be premodified by phrases coordinated by

and  followed by a plural verb:

e.g: American and Dutch beer are much lighter than British beer.

• But a singular verb is often used in this context, and is required when the
phrases are postmodifying:

e.g: Beer from America and Holland is much lighter than British beer.
 Coordination with and
Coordination within a singular subject (2)
• When the subject is a nominal relative clause, coordination reduction allows
some variation in number interpretation:
e.g: What I say and do are/is my own affair.

• A generic NP with a singular count head requires a plural verb when head is
premodified and the premodification contains coordination by and:
e.g: The short-term and long-term loan are handled very differently by the bank.
 This NP is notionally plural.
 Coordination with and
Coordinative apposition (1)
• Coordinative apposition: each of the coordinated units has the same reference.
• A singular verb is required if each NP is singular:
e.g: This temple of ugliness and memorial to Victorian bad taste was erected in the main
street of the city.

• The NPs could have either a singular or plural verb depending on the meaning:
e.g: His aged servant and the subsequent editor of his collected papers was/were with
him at his deathbed.
 Coordination with and
Coordinative apposition (2)
• Some latitude is allowed in the interpretation of abstract nouns:
e.g: Your fairness and impartiality has/have been much appreciated.
Her calmness and confidence is/are astonishing.

 We may use either singular or plural, depending on whether qualities are

seen as separate or as a complex unity.
 IV. Coordinated subject (2)
Quasi-coordination (1)
• Subject NPs may be linked by quasi-coordinators, i.e. prepositions (along with,
rather than, as well as…) that are semantically similar to coordinators.
• Grammatical concord requires a singular verb if the first NP is singular:
e.g: The captain, as well as the other players, was tired.
• Occasionally the principle of notional concord prompts the plural, especially in
loosely expressed speech:
e.g: ? One man with his wife, both looking very anxious, were pleading with a guard
to let them through.
• e.g 1: The captain, as well as the other players, was tired.
• e.g 2: A writer, and sometimes an artist, is invited to address the
society.
• e.g 3: The Prime Minister, not the monarch, decides government
policy.
e.g 4: So far no money has been spent on repairs.
None (of the money) has been spent on repairs
e.g 5 : No people of that name live here.
Some books have been placed on the shelves.
 IV. Coordinated subject (2)
Quasi-coordination (giả đẳng kết, ngụy đẳng
kết)(1)
• If an adverbial is attached to a second NP liked to the first NP by and  the
construction is parenthetic  the verb agrees in number with the first NP:

e.g: A writer, and sometimes an artist, is invited to address the society.

• The second phrase is negative, whether or not linked by and, though here the
principle of notional concord reinforces the use of the singular:

e.g: The Prime Minister, not the monarch, decides government policy.
 IV. Coordinated subject (3)
Coordination with or and nor

• The coordinating correlatives nor…but and not only/merely…but(also/even)

behave like or with respect to number concord:
e.g: Not only he but his wife has arrived.
Not only one but all of us were invited.

• The mixed expressions one or two and between one and two follow the
principle of proximity in having plural concord:
e.g: One or two reasons were suggested.
 V. Indefinite expressions as subject (1)

• Indefinite expressions of amount or quantity, especially with the determiners

and with the pronouns no, none, all, some, any and fractions such as half have
both count and noncount uses.
• With noncount nouns the verb is singular:
e.g: So far no money has been spent on repairs.
None (of the money) has been spent on repairs.
• With plural count nouns the verb is plural:
e.g: No people of that name live here.
Some books have been placed on the shelves.
 V. Indefinite expressions as subject (2)

• The plural is even more favoured in such constructions with none:

e.g: None of them have been placed on the shelves.

• The proximity concord may lead to plural concord even with indefinites such as
each, every, everybody, anybody, nobody (or indefinites phrases such as every
one, any one):

e.g: Nobody, not even the teachers, was listening.

? were
 VI. Concord of person

• The verb in present tense may have person concord with the subject – 1st
and 3rd person concord with BE and only 3rd person concord with other
verbs:
e.g: I am your friend.
He knows you.
 Summary: Subject-Verb Concord

• The principle of Grammatical concord tends to be followed in formal usage and

has the sanction of teaching and editorial tradition.
• The principle of Notional concord is most natural to colloquial English.
• The principle of Proximity, despite its minor decisive role in cases where the
other two provide no guidance, is generally felt to lack validity on its own, and
has more of an auxiliary role in supporting notional concord in colloquial speech.
 PART 4. VOCATIVES
Forms of vocatives
Presenter: Lê Lệ Tuyết
a. Names
b. Standard appellatives
c. Terms for occupations
d. Epithets (N or Adj phrases) expressing an evaluation
e. General nouns which are often used in more specialized senses
f. The personal pronoun you
g. Nominal clauses (very occasionally)
h. Items from (a), (d), (e), (f) + modifiers or appositive elements of various kind
 Forms of vocatives (2)

• Definition: An optional element, usually a NP, denoting the one or more

persons to whom the sentence is addressed.

NOTE:

• Salutation: Dear + Name/Madam/Sir

• To whom it may concern

• Dear is often omitted in informal notes: Friends, Gentlemen.

 Part 5. NEGATION
Types of negation

• 5.1. Clause negation (Phủ định mệnh đề): through which the whole clause is
syntactically treated as negative.

• 5.2. Local negation (Phủ định cục bộ): in which one constituent is negated.

• 5.3. Predication negation (Phủ định vị ngữ): a minor type applying only after
certain auxiliaries, in which the predication is negated.
 5.1. Clause negation
5.1.1. Clause negation through verb negation
5.1.2. Contracted forms of negator and auxiliaries
5.1.3. Syntactic features of clause negation
5.1.4. Clause negation other than through verb negation
5.1.5. Nonassertive items and negative items
5.1.6. Nonassertive contexts
5.1.7. Negative intensification
5.1.8. More than one nonassertive item
5.1.9. Scope of negation
5.1.10. Focus of negation
 5.1.1. Clause negation through verb negation (1)

• A simple positive sentence is negated by inserting the clause negator not

between the operator and the predication:
e.g: I have finished.  I have not finished.
• The operator = the first auxiliary verb of a complex verb phrase/ BE/ stative
HAVE (BrE) as the verb in a simple verb phrase.
• If an operator is not present  the dummy (substitute) auxiliary DO is
introduced:
e.g: She works hard.  She does not work hard.
 5.1.1. Clause negation through verb negation (2)

• Except in formal English, the negator more usually occurs also in the
contract form n’t:
e.g: The children aren’t playing.

• The uncontractred form is of course required when the nucleus is on the

negator for emphasis:
e.g: I did NOT say that.
 Note for Clause negation through verb negation (1)

• The dynamic main verb have requires DO as operator:

e.g: We didn’t have a party last week.
*We hadn’t a party last week.
• The stative main verb have usually has DO as operator, though it does not need
to. In BrE especially, got is often added in informal style:
e.g: He has enough money.
 He doesn’t have enough money. (AmE)
He hasn’t got enough money. (BrE)
 Note for Clause negation through verb negation
(2)
• Every auxiliary except the am form of BE has a contracted negative form, but mayn’t
(/ˈmeɪənt/) and shan’t are now virtually nonexistent in AmE, while in BrE shan’t is
becoming rare and mayn’t even more so. (cf. 3.23)
• In AmE, if the verb is subjunctive, the negator is positioned immediately before the
verb, but without an operator:
e.g: I requested that they not interrupt me. (AmE)
• In BrE, putative should or the indicative are more likely with the consequent normal
negation with the operator:
e.g: I requested that they shouldn’t interrupt me. (BrE)
 Note for Clause negation through verb negation (3)

• In archaic or facetiously archaic usage we can still meet negative

constructions in which not follows a full verb and not an operator (cf. 3.22):
e.g: If I mistake not, you were at Yale?
I have got a new car. I haven’t got any sisters.
• Some positive clauses are likely to be negated only in denials of previous
statements:
A: He is sure to succeed.
bound
B: No, he isn’t sure to succeed.
is NOT bound
 5.1.2. Contracted forms of negator and auxiliaries
• If the operator can be contracted to a form enclitic to the subject, there are
two possibilities for contraction in negative clauses - negator contraction and
auxiliary contraction:
e.g: Jane isn’t responsible. Jane’s not responsible.
• Note:
- There is no standard negator contraction to parallel I’m not ready.
- ain’t (= am not/is not/are not): non-standard or humorous use.
• For the factors determining the choice between negator and auxiliary
contraction (cf. 3.23).
 5.1.3. Syntactic features of clause negation (1)
- They are followed by:
• positive checking tag questions
• negative tag clauses, with additive meaning
• negative agreement responses (in discourse)
• nonassertive items

- They do not co-occur with items that have positive orientation:

e.g: *It isn’t pretty late.
 5.1.4. Clause negation other than through verb negation (1)

• Words negative in form and meaning:

Verb negation Negation of other element

That was not an accident. There was no accident.
Dogs are not permitted here. No dogs are permitted here.
We didn’t leave one bottle behind. We left not one bottle behind.
They are not staying with us any longer. They are no longer staying with us.
I won’t make that mistake ever again. I will never make that mistake again.
5.1.4. Clause negation other than through verb negation (2)

• Word negative in meaning but not in form: seldom, rarely, scarcely,

hardy, barely, little, few.
• These can effect clause negation:
+ they are followed by nonassertive forms:
e.g: Hardly anyone wants the job.
+ sentences in which they appear generally require a positive tag
question:
e.g: They scarcely seem to care, do they?
5.1.5. Nonassertive items and negative items
(Yếu tố không xác nhận và yếu tố phủ định)
 5.1.6. Nonassertive contexts
Apart from negative contexts, nonassertive items appear in a number of other contexts:
• Yes-No questions that expect a negative response or are neutral in expectation:
• Wh- questions
• Putative should- clauses:
• Conditional clauses:
• Comparative clauses:
• Restrictive relative clauses modifying generic NPs, where the clauses have conditional
meaning:
• After words that are morphologically negative or that have negative import
 5.1.7. Negative intensification (1)
Sự tăng ý nghĩa phủ định

There are various ways of giving emotive intensification to a negative:

• Nonassertive expressions of extent besides at all include: by any means, in
anyway, in the slightest, in the least, a bit <informal>
• Negative determiners and pronouns are given emphasis by at all, whatever,
and whatsoever:
e.g: I found nothing at all the matter with him.
You have no excuse whatever.
 5.1.7. Negative intensification (2)
• Never is repeated for emphasis, or else combined with an intensifying phrase
such as in all my life:
e.g: I’ll never, never go there again.
I’ve never in all my life seen such a crowd.
• Never itself may serve for some as an emphatic informal negative in denials:
e.g: ? I never stayed there last night.
• The combinations not one and not a (single) are emphatic alternatives to no as
a countable determiner:
e.g: Not a word came from her lips.
 5.1.7. Negative intensification (3)
• Other emotively coloured expressions include:
He didn’t give me a thing. <informal>
I don’t care a damn whether we win or lose.<familiar>

• Some expressions are formed in combination with specific verbs:

He won’t lift a finger to help you.
I didn’t sleep a wink.
(recommended reading: p.786 for more interesting expressions)
 Note for Negative intensification (1)
• To speak of is an informal nonassertive downtoner:
e.g: They haven’t any money, to speak of.
• Quite is acceptable in a negative sentence when it modifies a phrase with the
postmodifier enough:
e.g: They don’t drive quite fast enough.
• In informal style, too may be synonymous with very, hence, there may be a shift
of meaning in negation or when too modifies words with negative meaning.
e.g: They drive too fast.
[‘They don’t drive slowly enough’]
They don’t drive too fast.
[‘They don’t drive very fast.’]
 5.1.8. More than one nonassertive item (1)

• If a clause is negative, it is usually negative throughout, or at least until the

beginning of a final adjunct.

• Nonassertive items must normally be used after the negative element in place of
every assertive item that would have occurred in the corresponding positive
clause:

e.g: I’ve never travelled anywhere by air yet.

 5.1.8. More than one nonassertive item (2)

• Negative items (normally only one) must always precede the nonassertive items:

e.g: I give pocket money to none of my children at any time.

I give pocket money to my children at no time.

•  The further the negative word is postposted, the more questionable the
sentence is, because the sentence is at first perceived as positive and then has to
be reinterpreted as negative.
 Note for More than one nonassertive item

• In non standard English, a negative item can be used wherever in standard

English a nonassertive item follows a negative:
e.g:
Standard: No one ever said anything to everybody.
Nonstandard: No one never said nothing to nobody.

 Such multiple negatives are condemned by prescriptive grammatical

tradition.
 5.1.9. Scope of negation (Vùng phủ định) (1)
• A negative item may be said to govern a nonassertive only if the latter is within the SCOPE
of the negative.

• The scope of negation = The stretch of language over which the negative item has a
semantic influence.

• The scope of negation normally extends from the negative item itself to the end of the
clause, but it need not include an end-placed adverbial.

• In a clause with the clause negator not or a negative word such as never or hardly in the
same position after the operator, adverbials occuring before the negative normally lie
outside the scope.
 5.1.9. Scope of negation (2)

• The difference of scope, which is here marked by intonation, reflects an important

difference of meaning:
e.g: I wasn’t listening all the time. (1)
I wasn’t listening all the time. (2)
• Disjuncts and conjuncts (cf.8.12) always lie outside the scope of clause negation,
whatever their position:
e.g: She doesn’t know him, however.
• The scope can sometimes extend into a subordinate clause:
e.g: I wouldn’t like you to disturb anyone.
 5.1.10. Focus of negation (Điểm phủ định)

• A special or contrastive nuclear stress falling on a particular part of the clause

indicates that the contrast of meaning implicit in the negation is located at that
spot, and also that the rest of the clause can be understood in a positive sense.

• To distiguish the parts that are to be understood negatively and positively  to

refine the notion of scope to allow for DISCONTINUOUS SCOPE & the part
preceding the negative item to come within the scope of negation.
 5.1.10. Focus of negation (2)

I didn’t take Joan to swim in the POOL today. I forgot to do so.

I didn’t (take) JOAN to swim in the pool today. It was Mary.
I didn’t (take Joan) to SWIM in the pool today. just to see it.
I didn’t (take Joan to swim) in the POOL today. I took her to the seaside.
I didn’t (take Joan to swim in the pool) TODAY. It was last week that I did so.

Scope and focus are interrelated such that the scope must include the focus.
 one way of signalling the extent of the scope is by the position of the focus.
 5.2. Local negation

• Negates a word or phrase, without marking the clause negative:

e.g: She’s a not unattractive woman, in some ways.

 The point is somewhere between unattractive and attractive.

• In other type of local negation, not modifies a degree adverb, which in turn
modifies a positive gradable adj or adv:

e.g: They own two not very fierce dogs.

 Negation of modal auxiliaries (1)
Phủ định với các trợ động từ tình thái
Present & Past forms of modals
• Auxiliary negation:
You may not smoke in here.
[‘You are not allowed to smoke in here.’]
• Main verb negation:
They may not like the party.
[‘It is possible that they do not like the party.’]
• The past tense negative auxiliaries (mightn’t, couldn’t, wouldn’t, shouldn’t)
follow the same negative pattern as their present tense equivalents.
 5.3. Predication negation

• In predication negation, a modal auxiliary is used with a different scope of

negation than is normal for that auxiliary:
e.g: They may not go swimming.
[‘They are allowed not to go swimming.’]
• Predication negation may also be followed by nonassertive forms:
e.g: You could not attend any of the meetings.
[‘It’s possible for you not to attend any of the meetings.’]
 Double negation

• Two negatives occasionally occur in the same clause:

e.g: Not many people have nowhere to live.

No one has nothing to offer to society.

Nobody has nothing to eat.

• Syntactically, however, the sentences are negative, they require positive tag
questions:

e.g: Not all imperatives have no subject, do they?

 Summary of Negation

• 3 types of negation: Clause negation, Local negation, Predication negation.

• Scope of negation: The stretch of language over which the negative item has a
semantic influence.

• Focus of negation: A special or contrastive nuclear stress falling on a particular

part of the clause indicates that the contrast of meaning implicit in the negation is
located at that spot.
 Chapter 16: COMPLEMENTATION
OF VERBS AND ADJECTIVES
Presenter: Nguyễn Thị Quỳnh Nam

Definition: Complementation is part of a phrase or clause which follows

a word, and completes the specification of a meaning relationship
which that word implies.

Objective: To examine the ways in which lexical verbs and adjectives

determine the grammatical patterns that follow them.
CHAPTER 16: COMPLEMENTATION OF VERBS AND ADJECTIVES
3. Multi-word verbs: phrasal, prepositional,
phrasal-prepositional verbs
4. Complementation of verbs
5. Complementation of adjectives (self-confer)
6. Complementation of abstract nouns (self-confer)
(pages 1150 – 1232)
Choose the correct italic option(s) to complete the sentences/ phrases.
There may be more than one correct answer.
wentfor
1. The dog went for / went forme.
me
lookback
2. We must not look back/ look back the past.
calledononthe
3. They called thedean
dean/ called the dean on.
called
4. They called up the
up the dean
dean / called
/ called thethe dean
dean up. up
onhim
5. They called him on / on him//him
himup
up/ up him.
calledangrily
6. They called angrilyonon/ called angrily up the dean.
7. The man ononwhom
whomthey
theycalled
called/ up whom they called
Onwhich
8. On whichman
man/ up which man did they call?
CALLon
9. Which man did they CALL on/ call ON / call
callUP
UP/ CALL up?
 MULTI-WORD VERBS

1. Phrasal verbs: call up, drink up, egg on, call off …

2. Prepositional verbs: call on, dispose of, go on, walk in …

3. Phrasal-prepositional verbs: get away with,

look forward to, put up with …

The words following the lexical verbs, such as “up, on, off,
of, in, away, with, forward, to …” are given the neutral
designation PARTICLES.
PARTICLES

(A) Prepositions only: against, among, as, at, beside, for, from,
into, like, of, onto, upon, with, etc.
(B) Either prepositions or spatial adverbs: about, above, across,
after, along, around, by, down, in, off, on,
out (AmE), over, past, round, through, under, up, etc.
(C) Spatial adverbs only: aback, ahead, apart, aside, astray, away,
back, forward(s), home, in front, etc.
 Prepositions (A) vs. Spatial adverbs (C)

Prepositions (A) require a following noun phrase as a

prepositional complement
Adverbs (C) do NOT require a following noun phrase.

Prepositional constructions Adverbial constructions

(A) The dog went for me. * The dog went for.
(B) Jack fell down the hill. Jack fell down.
(C) * We must not look back the past. We must not look back.
The lexical verbs occurring in multi-word verbs are:
- frequently the most common verbs, and are typically associated with
physical movement or state: call, come, get, fall, give, go, keep, make,
put and take …
- words which occur as verbs only when combined with particles, such
as ‘beaver’ in ‘beaver away’, ‘egg’ in ‘egg on’, ‘eke’ in ‘eke out’.
eg:She egged on him. * She egged (him).
- When combined with a particle, some normally intransitive verbs can
become transitive, whereas some normally transitive verbs can become
intransitive.

They are living it down. * They are living it.

The plane took off. * The plane took.
MULTI-WORD VERBS:
- PHRASAL VERBS (Type I + Type II)

- PREPOSITIONAL VERBS (Type I + Type II)

- PHRASAL-PREPOSITIONAL VERBS
 PHRASAL VERBS
Type I (Intransitive) phrasal verbs:
She turned up unexpectedly. Did he catch on?
He is playing around. I hope you’ll get by.
The paper has gone astray. The news made him reel back.

- Such phrasal verbs are usually informal. The particles are from Class B
(either prepositions or spatial adverbs) and Class C (spatial adverbs only)
- The particle functions like a predication adjunct, and usually CANNOT be
separated from its lexical verb.
* The news made him reel distractively back.
 Type II (Transitive) phrasal verbs
- With most Type II phrasal verbs, as with free combinations of the same
pattern, the particle can either precede or follow the direct object:
They turned on the light. (SVAO)
They turned the light on. (SVOA)
- The order SVOA is more usual.
- The order SVOA is the only acceptable when the object is a personal
pronoun.
* They switched on it. They switched it on.
- The preposition tends to precede the object if the object is long, or
if the intention is that the object should receive end-focus.
They switched on the TV set they had just bought.
- Unlike free combination, the meaning CANNOT be predicted from
the lexical verb and the particle.
She took in the box. (brought inside – free combination)
She took in her parents. (deceived – phrasal verb)
- It is RARELY possible to place the particle before the subject, even with
free combination.
* Out he took a gun.
- It is RARELY possible to insert an adverb before the particle.
In case of insertion, the meaning is non-idiomatic.
She brought the girl up. (She raised the girl)
She brought the girl right up. (She caused the girl to come up sth)
- Some phrasal verbs do NOT easily allow the placement of the particle
before the object. In some cases the SVAO is avoided because of
ambiguity.
Get the parcel off right away. (send)
≠ Get off that parcel right away. (leave, keep away)
- The SVAO is avoided due to the coordination of particles.
I switched the light on and off. ? I switched on and off the light.
- The SVAO is avoided due to idiomatic convention:
I was crying my eyes out. * I was crying out my eyes.
laughing my head off. laughing off my head.
sobbing my heart out. sobbing out my heart.
- Like transitive verbs, Type II phrasal verbs can normally be turned into
the passive without stylistic awkwardness.
Aunt Ada brought up Roy. Roy was brought up by Aunt Ada.
- Some phrasal verbs do NOT have a passive. These are principally
combinations for which the object is idiomatically limited to a
particular noun or pronoun.
The train picked up speed.
*? Speed was picked up (by the train).
Jill and her boss don’t hit it off.
*? It is not hit off (by Jill and her boss).
- The adverb may be semantically equivalent to a reduced prepositional phrase
from which the complement has been omitted. These are free combinations,
NOT phrasal verbs.
They pulled the cart along. (along the road, etc.)
Move the furniture out. (out of the house, etc.)
- Expressions like be fed up, be run down appear to be passive phrasal verbs
without a corresponding active.
I was fed up with the noise. * The noise fed me up.
- These expressions are “pseudo-passive” with the ability to combine with an
intensifier and a copular verb; and impossibility of an agent by-phrase:
He looked thoroughly fed up. * He was fed up by the noise.
 Phrasal verbs vs. Free combinations
FREE COMBINATIONS PHRASAL VERBS
- The verb acts as a normal verb, and the - The meaning of the
adverb has its own meaning, eg: combination CANNOT be
He walked past. (= past the object, place) predicted from the
I waded across. (= across the river, etc) meanings of the verb and
- The meaning is predictable from the the particle in isolation.
verb and the particle. He turned up.

- Possible to place the modifying adverb right - No insertion possible

(sometimes straight) between the adverb ? The prisoner broke right down.
and the verb: * They turned right up
Go right/ straight in. last night.
Drink right up. Walk straight in.
 FREE COMBINATIONS PHRASAL VERBS
- Possible to place an adverb before - Impossible to place an adverb
the verb with subject-verb before the verb with subject-verb
inversion. inversion.
Out came the sun. * Up blew the tank.
Up you come. * Up it blew.
On we drove into the night. * Out she passed.
 PREPOSITIONAL VERBS
Type I (Intransitive) prepositional verbs: V + preposition (A)
Look at these pictures. Can you cope with the work?
- The noun phrase follows the preposition as its own complement, NOT
the direct object of the verb + preposition.
- An adverb can be inserted between the verb and the preposition:
Many people looked disdainfully at the picture.
V Adv P C
- While insertion between the verb and direct object is usually avoided.
*? Many people examined disdainfully the picture.
 Type II (Transitive) prepositional verbs

- Type II prepositional verbs are followed by 2 noun phrases, normally

separated by the preposition: the former is the direct object, the
later the prepositional object.
- They can be divided into 4 main sub-types (IIa, IIb, IIc, IId) depending
on the increasing idiomatic status of the prepositional verb
respectively.
- The more idiomatic a prepositional verb is, the more the direct
object is fixed to it. Therefore, its separation by means of regular
passive is awkward, if not impossible.
- Type IIa: the most common type
The gang robbed her of her necklace.
He deprived the peasants of their land.
- This type has the lowest idiomatic status, and therefore has a passive of
the regular type, the direct object becoming the subject of the passive
verb phrase.
She was robbed of her necklace (by the gang).
The peasants were deprived of their land.
- Type IIb:
They have made a (terrible) mess of the house.
Did you make (any) allowance for inflation?
- This type has higher idiomatic status, and has 2 possible passives: the
regular passive in which the direct object becomes the subject and the
less acceptable passive in which the prepositional object becomes the
subject.
A (terrible) mess has been made of the house.
(?) The house has been made a (terrible) mess of.
Has (any) allowance been made for inflation?
(?) Has inflation been made allowance for?
- Type IIc:
Suddenly we caught sight of the lifeboat.
I have lost touch with most of the family.
- This type has the second highest idiomatic status.
- The only acceptable passive is the irregular passive in which the
prepositional object becomes the subject.
The lifeboat was suddenly caught sight of.
(?) Most of the family has been lost touch with.
- Type IId:
He pride himself on his craftsmanship.
- This highest idiomatic type with a reflexive pronoun as the direct
object has NO passive.
*Himself was prided on his craftsmanship.
Note: In the interest of end-focus or end-weight, it is sometimes
acceptable to place an elaborate direct object after the prepositional
object.
He had been known to reduce movie stars to tears.
He had been known to reduce to tears some of
the most seasoned and idolized movie stars in Hollywood.
 PHRASAL-PREPOSITIONAL VERBS
- Verb + adverb + preposition
We are looking forward to your party on Saturday.
We had to put up with a lot of testing at school.
Why don’t you look in on Mrs. Johnson on your way back?
- Informal
- Highly idiomatic, the meaning can be one-word paraphrased.
put up with = tolerate look in on = visit
- Uncommon passive voice
*A lot of testing at school had to be put up with.
 HOW TO
Differentiate Phrasal verbs from Prepositional verbs?
- Semantic criteria
- Syntactic criteria
+ The prepositional passive
+ The criteria of question forms
- Phonological criteria (stress)
 Semantic criteria for idiomatic status

- Phrasal verbs can be paraphrased with one word.

call for = visit leave out = omit
- The meanings of phrasal verbs are RARELY predictable from the
meaning of the parts.
come by = acquire turn up = arrive
- There is NO possibility of contrastive substitution.
bring up (raise) bring down (reduce, defeat)
turn up (arrive) turn down (refuse, reject)
 Syntactic criteria for prepositional verbs
- The whole prepositional phrase may be fronted.
On whom did he call?
- An adverb can be inserted between the verb and the particle.
He called unexpectedly on the dean.
- The prepositional phrase can be isolated in other constructions:
(optional) in responses, in coordinate constructions, or in comparative
constructions.
On whom did he call? - (On) his mother.
Did he call on the dean or (on) his friend?
He calls on the dean more often than (on) his friend.
 The prepositional passive
- It’s possible to turn prepositional verbs in the structure SVO into the
passive.
He called on the dean. The dean was called on.
She went out with Andy. * Andy was gone out with.
- Ambiguous combinations like arrive at take the passive only when the
preposition is part of an idiom.
We arrived at the stadium. *The stadium was arrived at.
We arrived at a conclusion. The conclusion was arrived at.
- The passive is acceptable with prepositions with a locative
meaning.
They must have played on this field last week.
This field must have been played on last week.

Visitors are not to sit on these Louis XV chairs.

These Louise chairs are not to be sat on.

Primitive men once lived in these caves.

These caves were once lived in by primitive men.
 The criteria of question form
- We use who(m), and “what” to make questions for prepositional verbs
with idiomatic meaning.
John called on her. Who(m) did John call on?
John looked for it. What did John look for?
John called from the office. Where did John call from?
John called after lunch. When did John call?
- We avoid fronting the prepositional phrase in wh-questions and relative
clauses with verbs with idiomatic meaning.
Who(m) did she look after? * After whom did she look?
Who(m) did she agree with? With whom did she agree?
 Phonological criteria (stress)
- The particle of a phrasal verb is normally stressed, and in final position
normally bears the nuclear tone.
Which man did they call ‘UP?
 The criteria for distinguishing phrasal and prepositional verbs
- The particle of a phrasal verb can stand either before or after the noun
phrase following the verb, but that of a preposition verb must (unless
deferred) precede the noun phrase.
They called on the dean. * She called the dean on.
They called up the dean. They called the dean up.
- When the noun phrase following the verb is a personal pronoun, the
pronoun precedes the particle in the case of a phrasal verb, but follows the
particle in the case of a prepositional verb.
They called on him. * They called him on.
They called him up. * They called up him.
- An adverb can often be inserted between the verb and the particle in
prepositional verbs, but NOT in phrasal verbs.
They called angrily on the dean.
They called angrily up the dean.
- The particle of the phrasal verb CANNOT precede a relative pronoun at the
beginning of a relative clause.
the man on whom they called
* the man up whom they called
- The particle of the phrasal verb CANNOT precede the interrogative word at
the beginning of a wh-question.
- The particle of the phrasal verb CANNOT precede the interrogative word at
the beginning of a wh-question.
On which man did they call?
* Up which man did they call?
- The particle of a phrasal verb is normally stressed, and in final position
normally bears the nuclear tone, whereas the particle of a prepositional verb
is normally stressed and has the “tail” of the nuclear tone which falls on the
lexical verb.
Which man did they ‘CALL on?
Which man did they call ‘UP?
Choose the correct italic option(s) to complete the sentences/ phrases.
There may be more than one correct answer.
1. The dog went for / went
wentfor
forme.
me
lookback
2. We must not look back/ look back the past.
3. They called
calledononthe
thedean
dean/ called the dean on.
4. They called up the
called dean
up the / called
dean thethe
/ called dean up. up
dean
5. They called him on / on
onhim
him//him
himup
up/ up him.
calledangrily
6. They called angrilyonon/ called angrily up the dean.
7. The man ononwhom
whomthey
theycalled
called/ up whom they called
Onwhich
8. On whichman
man/ up which man did they call?
CALLon
9. Which man did they CALL on/ call ON / call
callUP
UP/ CALL up?
MULTI-WORD VERBS:
- PARTICLES
- PHRASAL VERBS
- PREPOSITIONAL VERBS
- PHRASAL-PREPOSITIONAL VERBS
- CRITERIA FOR DISTINGUISHING PHRASAL VERBS
FROM PREPOSITIONAL VERBS
 OTHER MULTI-WORD VERB CONSTRUCTIONS
VERB-ADJECTIVE COMBINATIONS
Meg put the cloth straight.
- Like phrasal verbs, verb-adjective combinations form cohesive units, but
unlike phrasal verbs, some of them allow comparative modification:
John didn’t put the cloth as straight as Meg.
- They may be either copular (SVC) or complex transitive (SVOC):
SVC: break even, plead guilty, lie down
SVOC: cut N short, work N loose, rub N dry
VERB-VERB COMBINATIONS
- In these idiomatic constructions, the second verb is nonfinite, and may be
either an infinitive:
make do with, make (N) do, let (N) go, let (N) be
- or a participle, with or without a following preposition:
put paid to, get rid of, have done with
leave N standing, send N packing, knock N flying, get going
VERBS GOVERNING 2 PREPOSITIONS
- These are a further variant on prepositional verbs.
It developed from a small club into a mass organization in 3 years.
- Normally either one or both prepositional phrases can be omitted.
 VERBS IN RELATION TO VERB COMPLEMENTATION
Verbs in intransitive function (3 groups)
(I) PURE INTRANSITIVE VERBS: verbs which do NOT take an object at all
(or at least do so only very rarely):
Appear, die, fall, happen, rise, come, digress, go, lie, wait …
(II) VERBS WHICH CAN ALSO BE TRANSITIVE WITH THE SAME MEANING,
and without a change in subject-verb relationship. Informally, such
verbs can be described as having an “understood object”:
I am reading (a book).
- But in some cases the intransitive verb requires a more specific meaning, so
that a particular kind of object is “understood”
John drinks heavily. (drinks alcohol)
approach, drive, help, pass, win, drink, enter, leave, play, write …
(III) VERBS WHICH CAN ALSO BE TRANSITIVE, but where the semantic
connection between the subject and the verb is different in the
two cases:
The door opened slowly. Mary opened the door.
begin, close, increase, turn, walk, change, drop, move, unite, work
- This type also includes Verbs with MUTUAL PARTICIPATION.
I have met you. We have met.
The bus collided with the car. The bus and the car collided.
 Types of Verb complementation
1. Copular complementation
2. Monotransitive complementation
3. Complex transitive complementation

4. Ditransitive complementation
Presenter: Lê Thị Kim Oanh
 Types of Verb complementation
Four main types of verb complementation:
1. Copular
eg: John is only a boy. (SVC)
The kitchen is downstairs. (SVA)
2. Monotransitive
eg: I have caught a big fish. (SVO)
3. Complex transitive
eg: She called him a hero. (SVOC)
I left the key at home. (SVOA)
4. Distransitive
eg: He gave Mary a doll. (SVOO)
 1. Copular complementation
(SVC & SVA)
3 types
 Adjective phrase
The girls seemed restless.
 Noun phrase
New York seems a pleasant city
 Adjunct
The children are at the zoo
A verb is said to have copular complementation when it is followed by
a Subject complement (C) or a predication adjunct (A)
 Copular verbs: linking verbs

2 main types of copular verbs:

- Current copular: The girl seemed very restless
stative, not having progressive aspect
- Resulting copular: The girl became very restless
dynamic, having progressive aspect
 CURRENT COPULAR VERBS RESULTING COPULAR VERBS

- Be (the most popular kind) - become, come, end up, get,

- appear, feel, look, seem, go, grow, prove, turn, turn out,
smell, sound, taste wind up
- remain, keep, stay - blush, fall, fall down, freeze,
- burn, lie, loom, play, plead, run, slam, spring, wax
rest, stand, stand up
Note 1:
- “Go” is current copular in go hungry/ naked, but it is normally
resulting elsewhere, as in go sour/ red/ wild/ mad (go=become)
- “Die” in “He died young.” fits into neither of the categories.
The word die itself is conclusive, but the complement is current
attributive.
“He died young”  “He was young at the time of his death”
“He died a natural dead  His dead was natural.”
Note 2:
eg: It appears the only solution
~ It appears to be the only solution more commonly used
Note 3:
eg: It seems the only solution
~ It seems like the only solution more informal
 Semantic notes on copular verbs
Note 1:
 The verb ‘be’ is: - the most central copular verb
- the most neutral in meaning
- the most commonly used
 The verb ‘be’ is generally has current and stative meaning, but it is
also used in reference to events and activities
Eg:
There was a roar as the ball bounced off the goalpost current, stative
You’re being very helpful Events, activities
 Semantic notes on copular verbs
Note 2:
Copular verbs apart from “be” fall into 3 classes:
Verbs of “seeming” Verbs of “remaining” Verbs of “becoming”
and perception
remain, become,
seem, stay, get,
appear, keep go,
look, turn,
sound, grow,
feel, etc.
smell,
etc.
 Note 3:
Come vs. Go
Eg: come right Vs. Go wrong
come true Vs. Go rotten

Come  positive meaning Go  negative meaning

 Summary
Copular complementation
- After copular verbs (linking verbs)
- “be” is the most popular copular verb
- In the construction: SVA & SVC
- 3 types: + Adjective phrase
+ Noun phrase
+ Adjunct
 2. Monotransitive complementation
(SVO)

With the passive form Without the passive form

e.g: Tom caught the ball (SVO) e.g: They have a nice house (SVO)
~ The ball was caught by Tom ~* A nice house is had (by them)
 2. Monotransitive complementation (SVO)
4 types
 Noun phrase: John made a terrible mistake
 That-clause: I think that we have met
 Wh-clause: Can you guess what she said?
 Non-finite clause: We’ve decided to move house
They like listening to music
 Note 1:
The management paid for his air fares
~ His air fares were paid for by the management acceptable but awkward
Note 2:
When to precedes an infinitive, it is an infinitive marker; when
it precedes an -ing participle, it is a preposition
Eg:
I forget to meet her infinitive marker
He admitted to doing his bit.
preposition
I confess to telling a lie.
Note 3:
In general, choice of preposition is the same for morphologically
related verbs and nouns:
refer to ~ reference to
believe in ~ belief in
*Exception:
“hope” as a verb is followed by “for”, while the corresponding
noun construction has “of”
He hopes for success
but His hope of success.
 That-clause as object

 The conjunction in that-clauses which functions as object may be optional

I hope (that) he arrives soon
 But when the clause is made passive, the “that” cannot be deleted
Everybody hoped (that) she would sing.
~ That she would sing was hoped by everybody.
* She would sing was hoped by everybody.
 The normal passive analogue has “it” and extraposition, that being again
optional
Everybody hoped (that) she would sing.
~ It was hoped by everybody (that) she would sing.
Note :
leave
People are demanding that she should leave the country
leaves
largely restricted to British English

* worry
I regret that she should worry about it
worries

With emotive verbs, there is no mandative subjunctive construction

Note :
the news to be suppressed.
They intended
that the news (should) be suppressed more formal,
a hypothesis
 A nonfinite clause as a verb
complementation
 To-infinitive
We’ve decided to move house
 To-infinitive with S
They want us to help
 -ing participle
She enjoys playing the guitar
 –ing participle with S
I hate the children quarrelling
 Wh- infinitive clause
You must not forget when to keep your mouth shut.
Note :
He doesn’t like me coming often
He doesn’t like my coming often formal style
Note :
I have forgotten how to swim
*I have forgotten whether to swim
“whether” is rarely used in wh-infinitive clause as object
Note :
She began to eat lunch (O)
She stopped to eat lunch (A)
Note :
to write while in hospital
Lucy started/continued/ceased
writing

 There is no observable difference of meaning between the 2 constructions

But in some cases, a contrast between 'potentiality' and 'performance' may
influence the choice:
to speak, but stopped because she objected
He started
speaking, and kept on for more than an hour

to live
Brian loathed in the country
living
 Summary
Monotransitive complementation

- After monotransitive verbs

- In the construction: SVO
- With or without the passive form
- Main types:
+ Noun phrase
+ That-clause
+ Wh-clause
+ Nonfinite clause
 3. Complex transitive complementation
(SVOC & SVOA)
7 types:
 Adjectival Co: That music drives me mad.
 Nominal Co: They named the ship ‘Elizabeth'.
 O + adverbial: I left the key at home.
 O + to-infinitive: They knew him to be a spy.
 O + bare infinitive: I saw her leave the room.
 O + -ing clause: I heard someone shouting.
 O + -ed clause: I got the watch repaired.
Note :
Her parents named her (*to be) Gladys.
The selectors named her (to be) a member of the team.
 “name” can be used with to be only if the following noun phrase
designates a future role or status

Note :
She made him a good husband. (SVOdCo)
# =He was made a good husband
She made him a good wife. (SVOiCs)
=She was a good wife to him
 Note :
They let the rope go
~ They let go the rope
~ They let go of the rope
Note :

The organization helped her start her own business

More common in American English
~ The organization helped her to start her own business

More common in British English

Note :
They saw the guards searching the building
~ The guards were seen searching the building
But:
They looked at the guards searching the building
*The guards were looked at searching the building

Prepositional complex transitive verbs have no passive form

 Summary
Complex transitive complementation
- After complex transitive verbs
- In the construction: SVOC & SVOCA
- 7 types:
 Adjectival Co
 Nominal Co
 O + adverbial
 O + to-infinitive
 O + bare infinitive
 O + -ing clause
 O + -ed clause
 4. Ditransitive complementation
(SVOO)
Eg: He gave the girl a doll
S V Oi Od
Note :
Passive form:
1. The girl was given a doll Most commonly used
2. A doll was given to the girl Less commonly used

3. A doll was given the girl Least commonly used

 4. Ditransitive complementation
(SVOO)
6 types:
 Noun phrases as Oi &Od: They offered her some food
 With prositional O: They say something to us
 Oi + that-clause: They told me that I was ill
 Oi + wh-clause: He asked me what time it was
 Oi + wh-infinitive clause: Mary showed us what to do
 Oi + to-infinitive: I advised Mark to see a doctor
Note :
1. We addressed our remarks to the children.
~ Our remarks were addressed to the children.
(*The children were addressed our remarks (to))
2. We reminded him of the agreement.
~ He was reminded of the agreement.
(*The agreement was reminded him (of))
Ditransitive verbs with prepositional objects normally
have only one passive form
Note :
She sent Paul a present. ~ She sent a present to Paul.
She made Paul a meal. ~ She made a meal for Paul.
bring to
deny to
give to do for
grant to find for
hand to make/or
throw to order for
lend to
offer to reserve for
owe to save/or
promise to
read to spare for
send to
shaw to
teach to
throw to
Note :
John convinced me (that) he was right.
~ I was convinced by John (that) he was right.
* That he was right was convinced me.
The second passive form is unacceptable when the direct
object is a that clause
I told Mark to see a doctor.
~ Mark was told to see a doctor
* To see a doctor was told Mark
The second passive form is also unacceptable when the direct
object is a to-infinitive clause
Note :
I ask/beg you that you will keep this secret
I ask/beg of you that you will keep this secret. more formal
 Summary
Ditransitive complementation
- After ditransitive verbs
- In the construction: SVOO
- 6 types:
 Noun phrases as Oi &Od:
 With prositional O:
 Oi + that-clause:
 Oi + wh-clause:
 Oi + wh-infinitive clause:
 Oi + to-infinitive:
 Types of Verb complementation
1. Copular complementation
2. Monotransitive complementation
3. Complex transitive complementation
4. Ditransitive complementation
CHAPTER 10: ASPECTS OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCES
1. Elements of the simple sentences
2. Relationships between the Subject and the Verb

CHAPTER 16: COMPLEMENTATION OF VERBS AND ADJECTIVES

3. Multi-word verbs: phrasal, prepositional,
phrasal-prepositional verbs
4. Complementation of verbs
5. Complementation of adjectives (self-confer)
6. Complementation of abstract nouns (self-confer)