GENETICS

and
Livestock Improvement

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GENETICS
• The branch of biology that deals with the
principles heredity and variation in all living
things.

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 Important contributor to the field
of
GENETICS

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Gregor Mendel (1866)
• The Father of Genetics an
Austrian monk who conducted
breeding experiments on garden
peas (Pisum sativum L.),
formulated and published his
hypothesis about inheritance of
characteristics
discovered that hereditary were
determined by elementary
factors (now called genes).
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  Hugo de Vries (in Netherlands), • Independently
rediscovered the
 Carl Correns (in Germany) and works of Mendel
in 1901.
 Erick Von Tshermark (in Austria)

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William Bateson (1906)
• An English biologist who studies
the inheritance of certain
characteristics of the chicken,
showed that the Mendelian laws
also applied to animals.

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 Johannsen (1909)
• A Danish biologist, coined the
term “gene” to refer to the
particulate factor that Mendel
hypothesized as the basic unit
of inheritance.

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 James Watson and Francis Crick (1956)
• Two young scientists of
Cambridge, University of
England, hypothesized the
chemical nature and
function of the gene which
is now universally
accepted.

James Watson Francis Crick

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Genetic Improvement
• Improvement with
performance of the
animals brought about by
selection assuming that
the environment is
favorable.

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 DNA
• Deoxyribonucleic acid; the
primary genetic material of
all cells. A biochemical
compound consisting of a
chain of nucleotides called
polynucleotides called, each
nucleotide consists of
phosphate (P), and sugar
(S), and a base (B).

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 Chromosome
• Threadlike
structures found
in the nuclei of the
cells

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 Amino Acid
• The building blocks of
proteins; specific
combinations 3 bases; 20
of which are normally found
in proteins and referred to
as essential amino acids.

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Gene
• A segment of the DNA which
determines the base sequence of
nucleotide in the messenger
ribonucleic acid (m-RNA) that makes
up the code for a certain biological
function.

 The genetic information that is stored

must be such that it can be decoded
and translated into action in the
developing individual.
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Function of the Gene
• store and transmit genetic information from cell to cell
and from parent to offspring.
• copy or replicate itself with great consistency and
precision, and
• undergo mutation or error in copying which would
subsequently copied and replicated.

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Mitosis
• the mechanism of cell
division by which the genetic
and chromosome
composition of a cell is
faithfully reproduced in each
of the daughter cells
• a means of growth and
replacement in multicellular
organisms
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 Meiosis
• A special kind of cell division is sexually reproducing
organisms whereby the chromosome number of the
cells is reduced to half; a process by which the germinal
cells divide to produce haploid cells each carrying only
one-half of the genetic complement of the individual.
• The genetic materials is transmitted from parent to
offspring is made possible through the reduction
division of the germinal cells and subsequent union of
the gametes.

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 • Diploid – a cell, tissue, or organism that contains two
genomes or chromosome set.
• Haploid – cells that contain half as many chromosome
as the somatic cells.

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The G x E interaction
• The Mechanics by which the gene is able to synthesize
protein in the cell underlies the relationship among the
genotype (G) and the environment (E) in the formation
of the phenotype (P) of the organism.

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 Genotype
• Refers to the specific combination of genes that are
associated with a particular characteristics of the
individual.

Ex. In breeding, the accumulation of and proper

combination among the genes that are favorable to the
expression of superior performance is desired.

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Environment
• The totally of non-genetic factors affecting the
individual; ex. Provided well-balanced and nutritious
feed, good housing and other favorable environmental
factors is the aim of good husbandry practices.

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 Phenotype
• The observable manifestation of a given character of an
individual the phenotype may change but the genotype remains.
 Expressed mathematically as P= G + E + (G x E)
Where G x E is the interaction between the genotype of the
individual and the environment under which it is raised.
 The effect of G x E interaction becomes significant when
certain genotypes perform well under certain environments
than other genotypes. For example, the Zebu ( humped) called
grow and reproduce – better in warm tropical environment than
the European (humpless) cattle and vice- versa.

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 Gene Action
• Gene may be active only when they occur in pairs of
alleles during the diploid phase.

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 Allele
• One of two or more
alternative forms of a
gene which are
usually recognizable
by the phenotype

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 Structural genes
• Directly responsible for
the synthesis of certain
biochemical products
during cell metabolism

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Regulator genes
Control or regulate the function of other genes; may function in
terms of quantity, quality or timing of the activity of certain
structural genes.
 The action of genes as they influence genotypic values may
be any or a combination of the following type:

a. Additive- a pair of allelic genes contribute independently to

the genotype value; Ex. Inheritance of the roan coat color in
cattle

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Regulator genes
b. Dominance- the corresponding trait determined by an allele
which is manifested in the heterozygote form
- a gene suppresses the expression of its allele, the former is
called the dominant gene while the later is referred to as the
recessive gene

- Ex. A homozygous pea comb (genotype PP) and a single

comb (genotype pp) are closed, the progeny will be heterozygous
pea comb (genotype pp)

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Regulator genes
c. Epitasis
- taken from the Greek word which means “to stand
upon”
- interaction of between two or more genes so that
one of them (epistatic gene) interferes with or even
inhibit. The phenotype expression of the other gene
(hypostatic gene)
- special form of epitasis: complementary generation

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 The Mechanics of
Inheritance

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Animal reproduction
• Allows the flow of the
genetic material from
generation to generation.
Involves two processes:
gametogenesis and
fertilization.

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Gametogenesis
• The process of producing the reproductive cells
Spermatogenesis- the process of different ion of a mature sperm cell
from an undifferentiated germ line cell, including meiosis; male
produces sperm cells
Oogenesis- the process of differentiation of a mature egg cell form an
undifferentiated germ line cell, including meiosis; female produce eggs
Gamete- a mature reproductive cell capable of fusing with a similar cell
of opposite sex to form a zygote; also called sex cell
Spermatozoa- the male gametes of animals
Ovum- the female gamete

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Fertilization
• The fusion of two gametes
of opposite sexes to form
a zygote or an embryo.

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The Mendelian Inheritance
• The process of segregation
and recombination of genes
is governed purely by chance
and that the occurrence of
each new combination may
be predicted according to the
rules of probability.

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Law of segregation
• States that the unit of heredity characteristics occur in
pairs, and that information of gametes during meiosis,
there separate from each other so that only one
member of the pair goes into the particular gamete:

 Each parent must have contributed equally to the

progeny; It is a matter of chance whether the gamete
gets the dominant or the recessive allele.

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Law of Independence
• States that genes for the different characters are
inherited independently from each other and randomly
combine during meiosis

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Non- Mendelian Inheritance
• The inheritance of some
characters did not follow
the Mendelian laws
• The deviations was due to
chromosomal phenomena

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Locus
• (plural- loci) – a place at
which a particular gene
resides on the genetic or
linkage map

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Autosomes
• Carry genetic
material but do not
determine sex

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Sex chromosomes
• Determine the sex of the
invidual

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The types of sex-chromosomes are the following:

Sex Chromosome Pair

Class of Animal
Male Female

Mammals XY XX
Birds ZZ ZW

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Sex- linked genes
• Genes that are located
in the sex chromosomes

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Sex- linkage
• The inheritance of certain characteristics that are
associated with one sex or the other because the genes
controlling them are located in the sex chromosomes.

• The heterogametic offspring could only receive the

gene from its homogametic parent while the
homogametic offspring receives the allelic genes from
both parents.

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Sex- linkage
• Ex. Haemophila; color-
blindness(in some
mammalian species);
barring plumage pattern
and dwarfism (in some
species of poultry.

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Non-nuclear inheritance
1. Cytoplasmic inheritance
 occurs in plants; the chlorophyll – bearing plastids
are carried in the cytoplasm.
 quite rare in animals
 there are some evidences that cytoplasmic genetic
material affecting milk production may be present in
cattle.

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Non-nuclear inheritance
2. Maternal influence
 other than the genetic materials in the
chromosomes and the possibility that there may be
genetic materials in the cytoplasm, the mother could
further influence the characteristics of her offspring
because of the material care she provides to her
young.
 maternal effect forms part of the total environment
of the individual.

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 Genes in
POPULATION

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Gene Pool
 the totality of the
genes that could
potentially be
transmitted by
individuals in a
population to the next
generation.

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Population
 a group of individuals sharing a common gene
pool; a community of sexuality interbreeding or
potentially interbreeding individuals characterized by
the frequencies in which the genes and genotypes
occur in them.
 the genetic composition of most populations is in a
flux. It changes from generation to generation.

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Equilibrium Population
• A state when no change may occur; in Hard Weinberg
equilibrium stating that in an indefinitely large population
undergoing random mating, the gene and genotypic
frequencies will remain constant from generation to
generation provided that they are no selection, migration
and mutation.

 the British mathematician Hardy and the German

physician Weinberg independently formulated the principle
in 1908.
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 Factors affecting the
GENETIC
COMPOSITION
of a population

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1. Selection
• Process in which certain
genotypes contribute more
progeny in the next
generation than other
genotypes.

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2. Migration
• Process in which individuals from one population transfer
to another population.
• The change in the genetic composition in the host
population after migration is directly proportional to the
following two factors:
a. the number of migrants in proportion to that of the
resulting population after migration.
b. the difference in the gene frequencies between the
migrants and the natives.
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 The massive migration of wildebeests in the Serengeti is spectacular, and while California
has nothing that dramatic, many species migrate through the Bay Area twice a year.

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3. Mutation
• A spontaneous change in the
biochemical structure of the
gene resulting in an entirely
different phenotypic effect.
• If mutation occurs in the
somatic cell
• If it occurs in the germinal
cells, then it be transmitted to
the next generation.

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3. Mutation
 Small population size would result in change in the
gene frequency simply because of change variation.
 Because of certain physiological
factors, some individuals tend to make more often
together than with some other individuals.

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4. Non-random mating
 occurs when some individuals do not have the same
chances of mating with individuals of the opposite sex.
 only changes the genotypic frequency in the
population
 important forms of non-random mating
1. Assortative: individuals that are more
phenotypically similar tend to mate more often; tend to
drive the population toward homozygosis.

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4. Non-random mating
2. Disassortative matings: individuals which are less
phenotypically similar tend to mate more other
together than would be expected by chance; tend to
maintain the production of more heterozygotes at the
expense of homozygotes.
 Complete disassortative mating – sex dimorphism
in mammals (i.e. the maintenance of male and female
sexes) where only the mating between XX and XY
genotypes is successful.
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4. Non-random mating
3. Inbreeding: individuals
that are related by
descent tend to mate
more than under random
mating; also tend to drive
the population towards
the increase in the
frequency of
homozygotes.

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Animal Breeding
• the art and science of the
genetic improvement of farm
animals

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 Economically Important traits in farm animals
BEEF CATTLE DAIRY CATTLE GOAT SHEEP HORSES
•Post weaning • milk yield • multiple births • fleece weight • galloping speed
rate of gain • Butter yield (twinning) • fiber diameter • trotting speed
•marbling • Milk total solids • weaning weight • jumping style
• milk yield • trotting pace
length
CHICKEN – CHICKEN – DUCKS – FOR - SWINE
FOR -MEAT FOR - EGG EGGS
• Growth rate • egg production • egg production • average daily
• Feed • egg white • egg white gain
conversion • fertility • fertility • Litter size
ratio • yolk unit • yolk color • loin eye area
• Dressing • backfat
percentage thickness

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Pedigree
•a record of an
individuals ancestors
related to it through its
parents.
• ancestral relationship
among individuals of a
family over two or
more generations

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Systems of breeding
• May include selection, introduction of exotic animas
(migration) and subsequent crossbreeding, production
of mutation and assortative and disassortative mating
including inbreeding.

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Selection
• Process in where certain individuals are able to
contribute more progeny in the next generation than
other individuals.

 most of the economically important traits of domestic

animals are influenced by many pairs of genes acting in
various and complicated ways including additive,
dominance and epistatic effects.

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Heritability
• Measures the proportion of the total phenotypic variance
that are attributable to the additive effects of genes that
influence the given trait.
• Heritability ranges from 0 to 1
• Heritability value of 0 suggestions that all the phenotypic
variation among individuals in the population is due to
environmental and non-additive genetic effects.
• A heritability of 1 means that all the variability among
individuals are only attributable to additive effect of genes.

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 • In general, traits that are associated with reproduction
(e.g., fertility and litter size) have lower heritabilities than
those that are associated with physical conditions (e.g.,
body weight and back-fat thickness).

• The estimated heritability of some of the more

economically important traits among farm animals are
given in the following table:

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 CHARACTERISTICS HERITABILITY
Cattle
• amount of spotting (Holstein) 0.9
• adult body weight 0.6
• production 0.3
Pigs
• percent of ham 0.5
• litter size 0.2
Chicken
• egg size 0.7
• adult body weight 0.4
• egg production 0.2

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2. Inbreeding
• The process of mating animals that
are closely related by descent; non-
random mating or special case of
assortive mating.

• increases genetic homozygosity;

inbreeding depression; lowly
heritable traits; closet possible
inbreeding in animals is full-sib
mating and parent-offspring mating.

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3. Crossbreeding
• The mating between animals of
different established breed

• Results to large improvement in

the average performance the
F1 progeny over that of the
parents (called hybrid vigor or
heterosis effect) in the
presence of large dominance
effects crossbreeding.

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Animal Reproduction
• Involves the physical and
physiological processes
in bought sexes leading
to the fertilization of the
egg by the sperm cell and
the subsequent
development of the
young.

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Artificial Insemination (AI)
• Technique of
introducing semen
(spermatozoa) into the
oviduct without the
benefit of the male
effective if the superior
animal is the male.

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 Multiple ovulation and embryo transfer(MOET)
technology
• Increase the rate of
reproduction of the females
that are selected to serve
as embryo donors to as
much as 30 to 50 times;
already been successfully
demonstrated in cattle; not
as widely practiced as AI.

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Multiple ovulation
• A process by which
the female animals is
induced to
simultaneously
ovulate more eggs
than what is normally
shed.

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Embryo Transfer
• A technique wherein a
young embryo is
collected from a
donor female parent
and then implanted
into the uterus of a
recipient female
parent.

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 • https://www.biography.com/scientist/gregor-mendel
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/
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 • https://quizlet.com/261391479/non-mendelian-inheritance-flash-
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 Thank You
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STUDENT LEARNING ACTIVITY
1. Look for pictures charts of breeds of beef cattle, goat, sheep, pigs
and chicken (at least 5 each). Examine the picture of different breed of
animals presented. Which of these breed groups are still available in
the Philippines?
2. Look for live animals for evaluation/judging (Philippine cattle,
Philippine goat, Philippine chicken and Philippine duck. If not available
you may look for videos on YouTube. Take a close look at the live
animals. Identify and list down some qualitative traits of each animal.
3. In each group of animals, identify the primary products derived from
them. List down the economically important traits in each animal
species that are associated with these products.

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