Manufacturing Process

CHAPTER 2 CASTING

Dr. Bikash Choudhuri

09.04.22 1
 FOUNDRY PROCESSES

INTRODUCTION

Foundry processes consist of making molds, preparing and melting the metal
into the molds, cleaning the castings, and reclaiming the sand for reuse.

Founding, or casting, is the process of forming objects by putting liquid or

viscous material into a prepared mold or form. Generally solidification takes
place by cooling (metallic materials) but cooling may not be necessary (some
plastics).

A casting is an object formed by allowing the material to solidify. So, the

casting is the product of the foundry. It may vary from a fraction of a gram to
several tons. All metals and alloys can be cast.

A foundry is a collection of the necessary material and equipment

to produce a casting.
 History of Casting

 Ancient process, starte

d 5000 years ago.

 Jaivana- 50 tons canno

n was built in 17th centu
ry in Jaipur.

 Used for making arrows

, coins, knives etc. World’s largest Cannon in
Jaipur, made by casting
 Casting since about 3200 BCE…

China circa 3000BCE

Lost wax jewelry from Greece

Etruscan casting with runners circa 300 BCE
circa 500 BCE
 Why Casting?

1. A job of 5m diameter and 10m len

gth.
2. A job with a hole of 2m diameter,
made of very hard material.
3. Parts of very complicated shapes.

Selection of castings of various

materials, shapes, and sizes
 Crank Shaft

V6 engine block
AUDI engine block

09.04.22 6
 BMW cylinder head Brake assembly

09.04.22 CHAPTER 2 FOUNDARY 7

PROCESSES
 Requirement for Casting?

1. Cavity of desired shape- Mold

2. Molten metal
3. Proper channel to fill the molten metal
 Basic terms used in Casting
1. Pattern: Replica of the desired part
2. Mold- Container with a cavity within. Divided in
two halves: Cope and Drag.
3. Gating system- Network of channels that deliv
er molten metal to the cavity.
Production sequence in sand casting
Pattern making

Preparation Mold making

of sand

If necessary
core making

Raw Melting Pouring

material

Solidification and
cooling

Removal of sand
mold

Cleaning &
Inspection

Finished casting
Casting nomenclature
The figure in the right shows the nomenclature of mold and castings in sand casting.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EIBDp6U8bHo
The pouring cup, downsprue, runners, etc., are known as the mold gating
system, which serves to deliver the molten metal to all sections of the mold
cavity.

Gating system in sand casting

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pwaXCko_Tkw
To understand the foundry process, it is necessary to know how a mold is
made and what factors are important to produce a good casting.

The elements necessary for the production of sound casting will be

considered throughout this chapter.

These include:

1. Pattern
2. Mold
3. Core
4. Molding Procedure
5. Sand
6. Properties of Cast liquid
7. Behavior of Cast Material

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2CIcvB72dmk
 PATTERNS

 Replica of the desired product

 Has somehow different dimensions than the actual part to be manufactured.
Full‑sized model of the part, slightly enlarged to account for shrinkage and
machining allowances in the casting
 Used to form the mold cavity

A pattern (model) is a form used to prepare and produce a mold cavity. It is

generally made from wood but it can be produced from materials like aluminium
alloys (low in density). (Disadvantage of wood is humidity absorption.)

The designer of a casting must look forward to the pattern to assure economical
production. The design should be as simple as possible to make the pattern easy
to draw from the sand and avoid more cores than necessary.

The pattern may be permanent, so that it may be reused repeatedly. Alternatively,

the pattern may be expendable (disposable), made up of a material that is melted
out before or burnt up during casting.

Pattern has some dimensional variations from that of the real component (i.e.
casting). These variations from the real component are called Pattern Allowances.
 Pattern Materials

 Requirements:
1. Easily shaped, worked, machined and joined
2. Resistant to wear and corrosion
3. Resistant to chemical action
4. Dimensionally stable
5. Easily available and economical
 Pattern Materials
1. Wood:
 Easy availability, low weight and low cost
 Can be easily shaped
 More than 90% castings use wood patterns
 Absorbs moisture. So, distortions and dimensional
changes occur
 Relatively lower life, hence suitable for small quan
tity production
 Pattern Materials
2. Metal:
Used for large quantity production and for closer dimensio
nal tolerances
Longer life

Aluminum is mostly used.

Other metals: cast iron, brass etc.

 Pattern Materials
3. Plastic:
Low weight, easier formability, smooth surfaces and durab
ility
Do not absorb moisture. So, dimensionally stable

Corrosion resistance
 Pattern Materials
4. Polystyrene:
Changes to gaseous state on heating

Disposable Patterns. Hence, suitable for single casting.

When molten metal is poured into cavity, polystyrene tran

sforms to gaseous state.
Used mostly for small and complicated shaped castings.
 Pattern Types

1. Single piece pattern:

2. Split pattern
3. Loose Piece pattern
4. Match-plate pattern
5. Cope-Drag pattern
6. Gated pattern

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tB2ga9mISks
 Pattern Types

1.Single piece pattern:

Used for simple shaped & large
castings.
Pattern and cavity produced by i
t are completely in the lower flask
(i.e. drag)
Causes difficulty in making the
mold.

Solid pattern for a pinion gear

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uv28tqCOtAg
 Pattern Types

2.Split pattern:
Split pattern models the part as t
wo separate pieces that meet alo
ng the parting line of the mould
Two parts are aligned by Dowel
pin.

Split pattern showing the

two sections together and
separated. Light-colored
portions are core prints.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hwrTfxMeDns
 Pattern Types
3.Loose Piece pattern
1. As pre The name Pattern Contain One or more than one loose piece
2. Loose piece is used to make removal of pattern easy from mould box
3. loose pieces are attached to main body with the help of dowel pins or
wire
4. First main pattern is drawn and then carefully loose pieces
5. Moulding with this pattern is expensive and require more skill

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DyJiBaEPMtY
 Pattern Types
4. Match-plate pattern:
Similar to a split pattern, except that each half of the pattern is attache
d to opposite sides of a single plate.
Match plate confirms the parting line
Ensures proper alignment of the mould cavities in the cope and drag a
nd the runner system can be included on the match plate.
Used for larger production quantities.
Ic Engines piston rings

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rf8n9J2CDV4
 Pattern Types
5. Cope-Drag pattern:
It is similar to split pattern
Each half of the pattern is attached to a separate plate and the mould
halves are made independently.
.Pattern is made in two halves and split along parting line
These two halves are known as cope and drag
There moulding done independently
After moulding they are assembled to form complete mould box
Often desirable for larger castings

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m4qBETv7bX0
 Pattern Types
6. Gated pattern:
In this patters of gate and riser or runner are permanently attached to r
egular pattern
They are used to manufacture multiple casting in on time
Each pattern is connected with common runner .
Suitable for pouring small castings and for mass production
It save labour and time

https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=Jk2PC2o_XSg
 Pattern Allowances
Design modification that incorporated in the pattern is call
pattern allowances. There are some allowances which
are responsible for the difference in the dimensions of the
casting and the pattern. These allowances are considered
when a pattern is designed for casting. In this article we
will discuss those allowances

1. Shrinkage or contraction allowance

2. Draft or taper allowance

3. Machining or finish allowance

4. Distortion or camber allowance

5. Rapping allowance
 Pattern Allowances

 Shrinkage Allowance:

 Liquid Shrinkage

 Solid Shrinkage
Pattern Allowances
 Pattern Allowances
 Shrinkage Allowance:
 Shrinkage means contraction of metal on solidification
 All metals shrink after solidification. (Except grey cast iron t
hat expands on solidification).
 It is expressed in mm/m.
 Shrinkage allowance Differs from material to material.
 Positive type of allowance.
 Pattern Allowances
1. Shrinkage Allowance: Shrinkage takes place in a volumetric way, but it is
given linearly. Each dimension is measured with a shrinkage rule, which
automatically gives shrinkage allowance. It is expressed as in/ft. When metal
patterns are to be cast from an original master pattern, double shrinkage must be
given.

Fig. 2.1. Pattern Allowances for a Cast Connecting Rod.

 Typical shrinkage allowances:
Cast Iron Steel Al Brass Bronze

In/ft 1/8 1/4 5/32 3/36 1/8-1/4

% 1.04 2.08 1.30 2.0 1.04-2.08

CHAPTER 2 FOUNDARY
PROCESSES
 Pattern Allowances
 Draft / Taper Allowance:

 Taper provided by the pattern maker on all vertical surfaces of the pattern
so that it can be removed from the sand without tearing away the sides of t
he sand mould.
 Inner details of the pattern require higher draft than outer surfaces.
 commonly applied draught allowance is 1°to 3°
 due to draught allowance pattern can easily removed from mould box
 Pattern Allowances
 Draft / Taper Allowance:
This allows the pattern to be removed from the mold without damaging
the sand surface. Draft is added to the dimensions on the parting line

Exterior dimensions: 1/8 - 1/4 (in/ft), 1.04 %- 2.08 %

Interior dimensions: As large as 3/4 (in/ft), 6.25 %

 The amount of draft depends upon-

1. The length of the vertical side of the pattern to be extracted;
2. The intricacy of the pattern;
3. The method of moulding
4. Pattern material.
Pattern Allowances
 Pattern Allowances

 Machining / Finishing Allowance:

 It is given on the working areas of the part where further machining will be
performed. In value, it is equal to shrinkage allowance.
 he finish and accuracy in sand casting is generally poor.
 Extra material provided on the casting to enable their machining or finishi
ng to the required size, accuracy and surface finish.
 So it is Added in pattern dimensions.
 allowance is provided only in machining area
 Amount of machining allowance depends upon:
1. Method of moulding and casting used
2. Size and shape of casting
3. Casting orientation
4. Metal used in casting
5. Degree of accuracy and finish required
Pattern Allowances
 Pattern Allowances

 Distortion / Camber Allowance:

 Due to their typical shapes (U,V,T,L shapes) , castings get di
storted during solidification.
 Distortion is observed in irregular castings so that it
shrink in uneven manner
 Distortions are caused by internal stresses which are gener
ated on account of unequal cooling of different sections of c
asting.
 To avoid this distortion allowance is provided
 It varies from 2 to 20 mm
 Pattern Allowances

 Rapping / shake Allowance:

 Negative allowance is given by making the pattern slightly smaller to
compensate for the rapping of the mold.
 Before the withdrawal from the sand mould, the pattern is rapped all
around the vertical faces to enlarge the mould cavity slightly, which f
acilitate its removal.
 When pattern is rapped, mould cavity is enlarged.
 To account for this increase, pattern size is reduced.
 This allowance is important in large-sized castings and precision cas
tings.
 Amount of rapping allowance depends upon:
1. Extent of rapping
2. Degree of compaction of sand
3. Size of mould
4. Sand type
 COLOUR CODING FOR PATTERN

• Pattern are coloured by using shellac

paints.
• Colours gives protection and identifies
the features of patterns.
• colour scheme is given as bellow
Colour Indication
Black Unfinished surface on casting
Red Finished surface on casting
Yellow Core prints
Black Parting surface
Red/yellow strips Seats for loose piece
 QUIZ

Which of the following factor is not considered while selecting a kind of

pattern?
a) Quantity of casting
b) Types of moulding method
c) Shape of the casting
d) Nature of moulding process

In a three piece pattern moulding arrangement, what keeps the alignment

between the two parts of the pattern?
a) Cope
b) Drag
c) Dowel pins
d) Cheek

Piston rings are produced using which pattern?

a) Sweep pattern
b) Gated pattern
c) Match plate pattern
d) Loose piece pattern
09.04.22 41
 QUIZ

Which pattern operation is used for manufacturing wheel rims?

a) Follow board pattern
b) Segmental pattern
c) Sweep pattern
d) Gated pattern

Which of the following pattern is used to produce a number of castings?

a.loose piece pattern
b.split pattern
c.gated pattern
d.match plate pattern

The pattern used for mass production is

a. match plate pattern b. split pattern c.
skeleton pattern d. single plate pattern

09.04.22 42
 QUIZ

Distortion allowance is not provided in the following shape of casting.

a.U b. T c. C d. O

The machining allowance provided to ferrous castings for making

small and average sized casting is
a.1.5mm b. 3mm c. 4.5mm d.
6mm

The low permeability in sand can cause which of the following

defects in casting
a.Rough surface b. Blow holes c. hot tears
d. Drop

In casting, the amount of draft (in mm per metre) on exterior surfaces

is about
a. 10-20 b. 20-30 c. 30-40 d.
40-50

09.04.22 43
CORES

A core is a body of material, usually sand, used to produce a cavity in or on a

casting. A core must have sufficient strength to support itself and should not
fracture when liquid metal is approaching to it.

Cores may be classified as Green-Sand and Dry-Sand Cores. Green-sand

cores are formed by the pattern and made from the same sand as rest of the
mold. Dry-sand cores are made separately to be inserted after the pattern is
drawn but before the mold is closed. They are usually made of clean river
sand (40 parts) which is mixed with a binder (1 part) and then baked to give
the desired shape. The box in which cores are formed to proper shape is
called a CORE BOX. Generally, perforated pipe or wire frames are added to
give sufficient strength.
 Core and core print
• Core is metal or sand body, which is set into the
prepared mould before closing or pouring it .
• These are used to produce holes, projections, cavities in
casting.
• core is kept on seat in the mould box prepared by
pattern.
• Projection is made in mould box during moulding
process.
• these projections made on mould box are known as core
print.
Cores serve to produce internal surfaces in castings In some cases, they have to
be supported by chaplets for more stable positioning:

(a) Core held in place in the mold cavity by chaplets,

(b) chaplet design,
(c) casting with internal cavity
 Cores are made of foundry sand with addition of some resin for strength by means
of core boxes:

Core box, two core halves ready

for baking, and the complete
core made by gluing the two
halves together
 Types of cores
1. Horizontal core.
2. vertical core.
3. Balanced core.
4. Cover core.
5. Drop core.
 Types of cores

1. Horizontal core.
•As par the name it kept horizontally in the
mould box.
•Its position is along parting line.
•It is commonly used in foundry.
 Types of cores

2.Vertical core.
•Its is placed vertical in mould box.
•It occupies cope and drag.
•both the ends are rest in the core seat
provided in the cope and drag.
•both the ends are tapered and
maximum portion is located in drag.
 Types of cores

3.Balanced core.
•only blind holes or holes which are open at one
side are produced by balanced casting.
•Balanced core has only one core print to
maintain alignment of core
•core print and portion of core outside the mould
cavity is kept slightly larger and heavier
 Types of cores

4. Cover core
•It is supported on drag and completely
moulded in drag
•Core serve as cover for the mould
 Types of cores

5. Drop core
•It is used to produce holes in casting above
or bellow the parting line.
•taper is provided to side of core for way
placement
 Fig. 2.2. Types of Cores.

Most commonly used binder is Linseed oil. The oil forms a film around the sand
grain and hardens when baked at 180-2200C for 2 hours. Other binders are
wheat flour, dextrin, starch and several types of thermosetting plastics.
MOLDS

A mold is the container that has the cavity of the shape to be cast. It may be
made of metal, plaster, ceramics, or other refractory substances. Good castings
can not be produced without good molds

There are two types of molds:

1. Permanent mold: A mold used more than once. They are generally produced
from metallic materials such as; heat resisting (Ni-Cr) steels.

2. Expendable mold: A mold used only once and then destroyed to separate
the component. They are generally produced from sand. (for casting of ferrous
materials we have to use this type of mold, because melting points of ferrous
materials are very high).
MOLDING PROCEDURE Procedure for making green sand molds;

A. Pattern on molding board ready to ram up drag

B. Drag rolled over and pattern C. Mold complete with dry sand
assembled ready to ram cope core in place
 Moulding
 The term moulding process refers to the method of maki
ng the mould and the materials used.
 Moulding processes have certain features in common-

1. The use of pattern.

2. Some type of aggregate mixture comprising a refractory and bi
nders.
3. A means of forming the aggregate mixture around the pattern.
4. Hardening of aggregate or developing its bond while in contact
with the pattern.
5. Withdrawal of the pattern from the mould.
6. Assembly of the mould and core pieces to make a complete m
ould, metal then being poured into the mould.
 Moulding
 Classification of Moulding Processes:
 Making the Sand Mold
• The cavity in the sand mold is formed by packing sand
around a pattern, then separating the mold into two
halves and removing the pattern
• The mold must also contain gating and riser system
• If casting is to have internal surfaces, a core must be
included in mold
• A new sand mold must be made for each part produced
 SAND

Silica sand (SiO2) is well suited for molding purposes because it can withstand a
high temperature without decomposition. This sand is low in cost, has longer life,
and is available in a wide range of grain sizes and shapes.
Pure silica sand is not suitable in itself for molding, since it lacks binding qualities.
The binding qualities can be obtained by adding 8-15 % clay (kil).

Silica (SiO2) + Binders  Green Sand Mold

Moisture 5-10% (used in castings of Cast Iron
Clay 8-15% and Non-ferrous Alloys)

Silica (SiO2) + Binders  Dry Sand Mold

Linseed Oil (used in castings of Steels)
(40 part) (1 part)

Dry it first and then bake at 180-2200C for 2 hours

Synthetic molding sands are composed of washed, sharp grained silica to which 3-
5 % clay is added. Less gas is generated with synthetic sands, since less than 5 %
moisture is necessary to develop adequate strength.

The size of the sand grains will depend on the type of work to be molded. For small
and intricate castings fine sand is desirable so that all details of the mold are
brought out sharply. Sharp, irregular-shaped grains are usually preferred because
they interlock and add strength to the mold.
Foundry sands
The typical foundry sand is a mixture of fresh and recycled sand, which contains 90%
silica (SiO2), 3% water, and 7% clay.
The grain size and grain shape are very important as they define the surface quality of
casting and the major mold parameters such as strength and permeability:

Bigger grain size results in a worse

surface finish

Irregular grain shapes produce

stronger mold

Larger grain size ensures better

permeability
 Types of Moulding Sands
 Green Sand:
 The most common type consisting of forming the mold from
damp molding sand (silica, clay and moisture)
 Natural sand prepared as a mixture of silica sand with 18-30 %
clay and 6-8 % moisture.
 Fine, soft, light and porous.

 The name ‘Green sand’ employs for damped i.e. it contains moi
sture and the mould made of this sand is used immediately to p
our the molten metal.

 Easily available and has low cost.

 Types of Moulding Sands
 Dry Sand:
 Green sand that has been dried or baked in between 250° to
550° in suitable oven after the making mould and cores, is calle
d dry sand.
 More strength, rigidity and thermal stability.

 Suitable for larger castings.

 Types of Moulding Sands
 Parting Sand:
 It is used to keep away the green sand from sticking to the patt
ern and to allow the sand on the parting surface of the flasks to
separate without clinging.
 It is free from clay and is dry.

 It is washed and non sticky sand

 Types of Moulding Sands
 Core Sand:
 Used to make core.
 Should be stronger than the moulding sand.
 It is made by mixing core linseed oil with silica sand,
 It is also called as soil sand
Backing sand
•It usually contains burnt facing sand,
moulding sand and clay.
•It is old and repeatedly used sand and
used for baking facing sand
•It is filled behind the facing sand in the
mould box or flask.
Facing sand
•It is mixture of floor sand and new
moulding sand with suitable binder and
moisture.
•It is used next to the parting surface and
comes in contact with molten metal when
poured into the mould
•It is used around a pattern to cover it upto
2.5 to 5cm
 Properties of Moulding Sand
1. Refractoriness:
 The ability of moulding sand to withstand high temperatures w
ithout breaking down or fusing.
 The degree of refractoriness depends on SiO2 content and sh
ape & grain size of the particle.
 To enhance the proporty, sand should have lower percentage
of lime, magnesia, alkali, oxides of metals.
 Refractoriness is measured by Sinter point rather than its melt
ing point. ( At sintering temperature, the moulding sand adher
es to the casting)
 Properties of Moulding Sand
2. Permeability:
Also referred as porosity, is the property of sand allow the escape
of any air, gases or moisture present or generated in the mould wh
en the molten metal is poured into it.
Liquid metals cause evolution of gases due to their reaction with
moulding sand ingredients.
Permeability is a function of:
1. Grain size

2. Grain shape

3. Moisture and clay contents in the moulding sand.

 Properties of Moulding Sand
3. Cohesiveness:
Also referred to as the strength of sand.
It is property of moulding sand by virtue which the sand grain parti
cles interact and attract each other within the moulding sand.
Moulding sand should be capable of withstanding the compressiv
e and erosive force exerted by liquid metal while filling the cavity.
Low strength mouldings result in defective castings.
It depends upon the grain size, sand particle shape and size,
moisture content and density,
strength inversely affect the porosity
 Properties of Moulding Sand
4. Flowability:
It is the ability of the sand to get compacted and behave like a flui
d.
It will flow uniformly to all portions of pattern when rammed and di
stribute the ramming pressure evenly all around in all directions.
In general, flow ability increases with decrease in green strength,
an, decrease in grain size.
flow ability also varies with moisture and clay content.
It is also called as plasticity fluidity.
 Properties of Moulding Sand
5. Adhesiveness:
It is property of moulding sand to get stick or adhere with foreign
material such sticking of moulding sand with inner wall of mouldin
g box.
It helps the sand to retain the mould cavity and stay in the box.
 Properties of Moulding Sand
6. Collapsibility:
After solidification of the molten metal, the casting is required to b
e removed from the mould.
If the moulding sand is easily collapsible, free contraction of the m
etal as well as easy removal of the casting is possible.
If the sand is not collapsible, it will strongly adhere to the casting,
becoming very hard to separate after metal solidification.
A mold should have the following characteristics:

i) The mold must be strong enough to hold the weight of the metal,
ii) The mold must resist the erosive action of the rapidly flowing
metal during pouring,
iii) The mold must generate minimum amount of gas when filled with
molten metal.
iv) The mold must be constructed in such a way that any gasses
formed can pass through the body of the mold itself (permeability).
v) The mold must be refractory enough to withstand the high
temperature of the metal.
vi) The mold must collapse easily after the casting solidifies.
 SAND QUALITY TEST

Periodic tests are necessary to determine the essential qualities of foundry sand.
Various tests are designed to determine the following properties of molding sand.

a) Hardness Test (Mold Hardness): A spring loaded (2.3 N) steel ball 5.08 mm in
diameter is pressed into the surface of the mold and depth of penetration is
recorded as hardness. Medium hardness is about 75.

b) Fineness Test: It is used to obtain

6
percentage distribution of grain 12
sizes in the sand. Sand is cleaned
and dried to remove clay. It is 270
placed on graded sieves, which
are located on a shaker. Standard
sieve sizes (mesh) are vibrator
6,12,20,30,40,50,70,100,200 and
270. Shaking time is 15 minutes.
c) Moisture Content: Measure the weight of the given sand sample. Dry it
around 1000C and then weigh it again. Calculate the percentage.

d) Clay Content: A sample of sand is dried and then weighed. Then clay is
removed by washing the sand with caustic soda which has absorbed the clay.
Sand is dried and weighed again. The percentage gives the clay content.

e) Strength Test: Most common compressive test. A universal strength tester

loads a 50 mm long 50 mm diameter specimen by means of dead weight
pendulum with a uniform loading rate.

f) Permeability: It is measured by the

quantity of air that passes through a
given sample of sand in a prescribed piston
time under standard pressures.

g) Refractoriness Test: High

temperature withstanding ability of
sand is measured.
 Types of Casting Methods
1. Centrifugal casting.
• In this process mould is poured and allowed to solidify
during revolving.
• Due to rotation of mould the poured metal is subjected to
centrifugal force.
• Centrifugal force is allowed molten metal to flow in the
mould cavity.
• Dence metal is deposited on periphery of mould and start
sophistication.
• Lighter slag, oxides, inclusions are get separated and
moves towards centre.
 Centrifugal casting
• There is no use of gates runner and riser.
• The axis of rotation may be horizontal or
vertical.
• Applications
• Pipes , cylinder liners, bearings, bushes,
gears fly wheels, gun barrels etc.
 Shell moulding
• This process is used for smooth surface finish
• It consist of dump box which is partially filled with
silica and thermoelectric resin.
• Then dump box is sealed with metallic pattern
which is preheated about 250°c.
• When dump box is inverted mixture is get melted
and forms the shell on pattern plate.
• Shell thickness varies from 5mm to 8mm.
• These two shells joint togather to form complete
mould.
 Shell moulding
• Applications.
• small pulleys ,motor housing, fan blades,
cylinders, cylinder heads, break drums.
 Investment casting
• It is also known as lost wax casting precision casting.
• This method is used for manufacturing jewellry,dental goods.
• It involves following steps.
1. Making of wax pattern sometimes mercury or plastic may be
used.
2. provide wax made gates, runners, riser to the pattern.
3. Complete wax pattern put in box and filled with liquid mould
material.
4. liquid around wax pattern solidifies and form mould
5. Then mould is heated to 150°to 800°c to remove wax
 Investment casting
• Applications.
• surgical instruments.
• vanes and blades for gas turbine.
• costume jewellery.
• valve bodies.
• Reciprocating slides for cloth cutting
machine.
 Casting defects
Following are the casting defects arises
during faulty processes in casting.
1.Blow holes.
2.Pin holes.
3.Shift.
4.Short runs.
5.Hot tears.
6.cold shuts.
 Blow holes
• Blow holes are spherical, flattened or elongated cavities present in the
casting .They are formed due to following reasons.

• Reasons.
1. Rapid evolution of gas from mould.
2. Lack of porosity in mould box.
3. Excess moisture in sand.
4. Hard ramming of sand.

• Remedies
• Moulds and cores are properly vanted.
• Avoid hard ramming.
• Proper amount of moisture in sand.
• Proper grain size of sand.
 Pinholes
• Pin holes are small holes of less than 2mm diameter which are on surface or bellow
the surface of casting.

• Causes.
• High pouring temperature.
• Gas dissolved in molted metal.
• gases are not removed properly from molted metal.
• Sand with higher moisture content.
• Remedies.
• Maintain pouring temperature.
• increase flux proportion.
• reducing moisture content in sand.
• Effective regarding.
 Shift
• It is external defect arises due to mis allotment parts of casting.
• Causes.
• Core displacement.
• Misalignment of cope and drag.
• warn out or burn out of clamping pins.
• Misalignment of two halves of pattern.
• Remedies.
• Repair or replacement of dowel pins.
• Proper alignment of pattern.
• Proper alignment of cope and drag.
• Repair clamping pins.
 Short run
• It is also called as Morin.
• when cavity in mould is filled incompletely then short run introduces.
• Causes.
• Insufficient metal supply.
• lack of fluidity in molten Merkel.
• Molten metal temp is low.
• faulty gating system.
• Remedies.
• Adjust pouring temp.
• Adjust rate of pouring.
• Modifications in gating system.
 Hot tears
Hot tearing: Cracks caused by low mold collapsibility. They occur when the material is
restrained from contraction during solidification. A proper mold design can solve the problem.
•It is also called as pulls or hot crack.
•They may be internal or external.
•They having dark blue in appearance on surface.

•Causes.
•Lack of compatibility of core.
•high temp of casting metal.
•incorrect design of batting system.
•Lack of fillets and corner redii.

•Remedies.
•Improved design of casting.
•Improved compatibility.
•Proper solidification.
•correct pouring temp.
 Other Defects
Some other common to all casting processes:

Misruns: Casting solidifies before completely fill the mold. Reasons are low pouring
temperature, slow pouring or thin cross section of casting.
Cold shut: Two portions flow together but without fusion between them. Causes are
similar to those of a misrun.
Shrinkage cavity: Voids resulting from shrinkage. The problem can often be solved
by proper riser design but may require some changes in the part design as well.
Microporosity: Network of small voids distributed throughout the casting. The defect
occurs more often in alloys, because of the manner they solidify.

Some defects are typical only for some particular casting processes, for instance,
many defects occur in sand casting as a result of interaction between the sand mold
and the molten metal. Defect found primarily in sand casting are gas cavities, rough
surface areas, shift of the two halves of the mold, or shift of the core, etc.
2.8 PROPERTIES OF CAST LIQUID

The properties of the castings depend on foundry skin as well as other material
properties. Under similar foundry conditions, the properties will be affected by:

a) Viscosity of the liquid metal: It is a function of superheat that is the degree of

overheating above the melting temperature. Since the pouring process is
essentially a problem of fluid flow, lower viscosity is beneficial.
b) Surface Tension: It affects the wetting of inclusions and also limits the minimum
radius that can be filled without pressure (typically to 0.1 mm in cavity casting).
c) Oxide Films: Surface of the liquid metal quickly oxidizes and metals act as if it is
flowing in an envelope. Aluminum produces many problems due to quick
formation of strong oxides.
d) Fluidity: It is material plus mold property. It is the ability to fill the cavity in the
mold.
Fluidity is a measure of the capability of a metal to flow into and to fill the mold
before freezing. It defines to the great extend the quality of casting.
Factors affecting fluidity:

1. Pouring temperature
2. Metal composition
3. Heat transfer to the surroundings
4. Viscosity of the liquid metal

In the foundry practice, test for

fluidity is carried out for each
ladle just before pouring the
molten metal into the mold
 High Melt Temperature
•Reactivity
3000° C
•with air, mold mat'ls, Tungsten Carbide, WC,
Silicon Carbide, SiC Cubic Zirconia, ZrO2

Molybdenum

•Gas solubility
•H2 gas in Al
Alumina Al2O3
2000° C
Platinum, Pt Titanium, Ti
Iron, Plain Carbon Steels, low alloy, stainless

•Safety Nickel, Ni

Nickel Alloy Silicon, Si

•Metal fires, e.g. Mg

1000° C Copper, Cu, Bronze, Brass

Aluminum
Magnesium
Nylon
Zinc, Zn PTFE
Acetal
(Teflon) Tin,
Sn
HDPE

0° C
 HEATING THE METAL
Heat energy Heat to rise Heat to fusion Heat to rise
= + +
required Tm (solid→liquid) Tpouring

H  V Cs (Tm  To )  H f  Ce (Tp  Tm )

where
H : Total heat required, Btu (J)
 : Density, lbm/in2 (g/cm3)
Cs : Weight specific heat for solid, Btu/lb-°F (J/g- °C)

V : Volume of metal, in3 (cm3)

Tm : Melting temperature, °F (°C)

To : Room temperature, °F (°C)

Hf : Heat of fusion, Btu/lb-°F (J/g- °C)

Ce : Weight specific heat for liquid, Btu/lb-°F (J/g- °C)

Tp : Pouring temperature, °F (°C)

09.04.22 95
 Mold Filling

Bernouli's Equation:
p v
h  2  Const.
ρ 2g

h
Reynold's Number:
vDP
Re 

•Short filling times

•Potential Turbulence
(see Kalpakjian..Ch 10)
2.10 POURING ANALYSIS Sum of the energies from Bernoulli eqn.

P1 V12 P2 V22
h1    F1  h2    F2 Head + Press.+ Kinetic E. + Fric.
 2g  2g
P1  P2  0 Atmospheric pressure
1
F1  F2  0 Neglected
*
h2  0 Base (Datum) point

V1  0 Speed at the beginning of pouring

V22
 h1   V2  2 gh *
2
2g
09.04.22 CHAPTER 2 FOUNDARY 98
PROCESSES
 Mold Filling Example

Mold filling issues: oxidation, turbulence, mold erosion, soluble gases, safety
 (Volumetric flow rate)

For continuity law Volume rate of flow remains constant

Q  V1 A1  V2 A2
V
MFT 
Q

MFT = Mold filling time (sec)

V = Volume (cm3)
Q = Volumetric flow rate (cm3/sec)
 Tp Liq.

Tm

Tf
TST

V/A ↑ TST ↓

TSTcasting<TSTriser

Lower V/A located away from risers

So that: riser remains liquid until after the casting solidity

 RISER (FEEDER) DESIGN

Several riser designs are used in practice as shown in the figure. The riser must
remain molten until after the casting solidifies.
The Chvorinov’s Rule is used to calculate the riser’s dimensions.

Possible types and positions for risers in sand casting

 RISER (FEEDER) DESIGN

Chvorinov’s rule:

•Chvorinov's rule states that the solidification time t of molten metal is

related to the constant C (which depends on the thermal properties of the mold
and the material) and the local volume (V) and surface area (A) of the material,
according to the relationship

TST  Cm (V A) n

TST : Total Solidification Time (min)

Cm : Mold Constant (min/cm2) or solidification factor
V : Volume (cm3)
A : Surface area (cm2)
n : Exponent (n=2)
• Problems on riser design
• Risers are used to compensate for liquid shrinkage and solidification shrinkage.
But it only works if the riser cools after the rest of the casting.
• Height of cylindrical riser=1.5x Diameter of riser
• Shapes of riser-cylindrical,rectangular,spherical
09.04.22 Casting & Moulding 105
09.04.22 106
 Types of riser

09.04.22 107
 A molten drop of liquid metal which is in spherical
form will solidify in 10 sec with 2 mm radius. What is
the solidification time of same molten mass having
double radius?

09.04.22 CHAPTER 2 FOUNDARY 108

PROCESSES
09.04.22 109
 A cubical casting will solidify in 5 min. What is
solidification time of same molten drop which is 8
times heavier than original casting?

09.04.22 110
09.04.22 111
 In moulding process it is decided to replace a spherical
riser with 200 mm diameter using a cylindrical riser with
(h=d). What are the dimensions of cylindrical riser under
identical solidification time required?

09.04.22 112
09.04.22 113
 For casting a cylindrical aluminum bloom having a length of 1000 mm
and diameter of 750 mm. Calculate the approximate solidification time
(in minutes) estimated using Chvorinov's rule. [The mould constant 2
s/mm2]

h = 1000 mm
V = π r2 h
D = 750 mm
As = 2π r (r+h)
R = 375 mm
K = 2 s/mm2
n = 2 (assume)

Ts= k (V/As)n

Answer: 619.80 min

09.04.22 114
EXAMPLE
A cylindrical riser with dimensions of D=h
must be designed. Previous observations
5 cm show TST=1.6 min. for casting. Determine
dimension of riser.

10 cm TSTriser=2 min. suggested as.

15 cm

→
EXAMPLE
A cylindrical riser with dimensions of D=h
must be designed. Previous observations
5 cm show TST=1.6 min. for casting. Determine
dimension of riser.

10 cm TSTriser=2 min. suggested as.

15 cm  2  3
Vr  D h  D
Sol’n: 4 4
TST  Cm (V A) n 2 2 6 2
Ar  Dh  D  D
4 4
Vc  15 10  5  750cm3
Vr  4 D3 D
Ac  2(15 10  15  5  10  5)  550cm 2  2

Ar 6 4 D 6
1.6  Cm (750 550) 2
2  0.86( D 6) 2
→ Cm  0.86 min cm 2 D  9.15cm h  9.15cm
 With solidification factor 0.97×106 s/m2. Calculate
solidification time (in second) for spherical casting of 200
mm diameter.

09.04.22 CHAPTER 2 FOUNDARY 117

PROCESSES
 A casting of size 400 mm × 200 mm × 140 mm solidifies in 20 min;
calculate solidification time for a casting 400 mm × 200 mm × 35 mm under
similar condition.

09.04.22 CHAPTER 2 FOUNDARY 118

PROCESSES
09.04.22 CHAPTER 2 FOUNDARY 119
PROCESSES
 The height of a down sprue is 175 mm. The cross-sectional area at
the base of the sprue is 200 mm2. The cross-sectional area of the
horizontal runner is also 200 mm2. Calculate correct choice for the
time required to fill the mold cavity volume 106 mm3.

09.04.22 CHAPTER 2 FOUNDARY 120

PROCESSES
Example 3
The downsprue leading into the runner of a certain
mold has a length = 175 mm. The cross-sectional area
at the base of the sprue is 400 mm2. The mold cavity
has a volume = 0.001 m3. Determine:
(a) the velocity of the molten metal flowing through the
base of the downsprue,
(b) the volumetric flow rate, and
(c) the time required to fill the mold cavity.
Solution
(a) Velocity v = (2gh)0.5
= (2 x 9810 x 175)0.5
= 1853 mm/s

(b) Volume flow rate Q = vA

= 1853 x 400
= 741,200 mm3/s

(c) Time to fill cavity

MFT = V/Q
Example 4
In casting experiments performed using a titanium
alloy and a zircon sand mold, it took 155 s for a
cube-shaped casting to solidify. The cube was 50
mm on a side. If the same alloy and mold type were
used, find the total solidification time for a
cylindrical casting in which the diameter = 30 mm
and length = 50 mm.
Solution
Cylinder Volume V
Cube Volume V
= D2L/4 = (30)2(50)/4
= (50)3
= 35,343 mm3
= 125,000 mm3
Cylinder Area A
Cube Area A
= 2D2/4 + DL
= 6 x (50)2
= (30)2/2 + (30)(50)
= 15,000 mm2
= 6126 mm2
Cube (V/A)
Cylinder (V/A)
= 125,000/15,000
= 35,343/6126
= 8.33 mm
= 5.77 mm
Cm = TST/(V/A)2
= 155/(8.33)2
TST = Cm(V/A)2
= 2.23 s/mm2
= 2.23 (5.77)2 = 74.3 s
Elements of gating system
GATING SYSTEM IN MOLD
 Parts of Gating Systems
1. Pouring basin
•It is the conical hollow element or tapered hollow vertical
portion of the gating system which helps to feed the molten
metal initially through the path of gating system to mold cavity.
2. Sprue
•It is a vertical passage made generally in the cope using tapered
sprue pin. It is connected at bottom of pouring basin. It is tapered
with its bigger end at to receive the molten metal the smaller end
is connected to the runner.
It helps to feed molten metal without turbulence to the runner
which in turn reaches the mold cavity through gate.
3. Gate
•It is a small passage or channel being cut by gate cutter which connect
runner with the mould cavity and through which molten metal flows to fill
the mould cavity.
It feeds the liquid metal to the casting at the rate consistent with the rate of
solidification.

4. Choke
•It is that part of the gating system which possesses smallest cross section
area. In choked system, gate serves as a choke, but in free gating system
sprue serves as a choke.

5. Runner
•It is a channel which connectsthe sprue to the
gate for avoiding turbulence and gas entrapment.
• 6. Riser
• It is a passage in molding sand made in the cope portion of the mold.
Molten metal rises in it after filling the mould cavity completely.
• molten metal in the riser compensates the shrinkage during solidification
The
of the casting thus avoiding the shrinkage defect in the casting.
It also permits the escape of air and mould gases. It promotes directional
• solidification too.
• 7. Chaplets
• Chaplets are metal distance pieces inserted in a mould either
to prevent shifting of mould or locate core surfaces.
• distances pieces in form of chaplets are made of parent metal of which
The
the casting is.
• main objective is to impart good alignment of mould and core surfaces and
Its
to achieve directional solidification.
• 8. Chills
• In some casting, it is required to produce a hard surface at a particular
place in the casting.
• At that particular position, the special mould surface for fast extraction of
heat is to be made.
• The fast heat extracting metallic materials known as chills will be
incorporated separately along with sand mould surface during molding.
• After pouring of molten metal and during solidification, the molten metal
solidifies quickly on the metallic mould surface in comparison to other
mold sand surfaces. This imparts hardness to that particular surface
because of this special hardening treatment through fast extracting heat
from that particular portion.
Caine’s rule
• In the casting of steel under certain mold conditions, the mold constant in
Chvorinov's Rule is known to be 4.0 min/cm2, based on previous
experience. The casting is a flat plate whose length = 30 cm, width = 10
cm, and thickness = 20 mm. Determine how long it will take for the casting
to solidify.
 SOLUTION

• 20 mm = 2 cm
• Volume V = 30 x 10 x 2 = 600 cm3
• Area A = 2(30 x 10 + 30 x 2 + 10 x 2) = 760 cm2
• Chvorinov’s Rule: TTS = Cm (V/A)2 = 4(600/760)2 = 2.493 min
• A disk-shaped part is to be cast out of aluminum. The diameter of the
disk= 500 mm and its thickness = 20 mm. If the mold constant = 2.0
sec/mm2 in Chvorinov's Rule, how long will it take the casting to solidify?
• Solution:
• Units are all in sec and mm. R = D/2
• Volume V = πR2t = πD2t/4 = π(500)2(20)/4 = 3,926,991 mm3
•
Area A = 2 (πR2 ) + πDt = 2 πD2/4 + πDt =π(500)2/2 + π(500)(20) = 424,115 mm2
•Chvorinov’s Rule: T
TS = Cm (V/A)2 = 2.0(3,926,991/424,115)2 = 171.5 s = 2.86 min
• In casting experiments performed using a certain alloy and type of sand mold, it
took 155 sec for a cube-shaped casting to solidify. The cube was 50 mm on a side.
(a) Determine the value of the mold constant the mold constant
in Chvorinov's Rule. (b) If the same alloy and mold type were used, find the total
solidification time for a cylindrical casting in which the diameter = 30 mm and
length = 50 mm.
Solution:

(a) Volume V = (50)3 = 125,000 mm3

Area A = 6 x (50)2 = 15,000 mm2
(V/A) = 125,000/15,000 = 8.333 mm
Chvorinov’s Rule: TTS = Cm(V/A)2

Cm = TTS /(V/A)2 = 155/(8.333)2 = 2.232 s/mm2

(b) Cylindrical casting with D = 30 mm and L = 50 mm.

Volume V = πD2L/4 = π(30)2(50)/4 = 35,343 mm3
Area A = 2 πD2/4 + πDL = π(30)2/2 + π(30)(50) = 6126 mm2
V/A = 35,343/6126 = 5.77
Chvorinov’s Rule: TTS = Cm(V/A)2

TTS = 2.232 (5.77)2 = 74.3 s = 1.24 min.

• Compare the solidification time for casting of different shapes of same
volume (cubic, cylindrical and spherical) (d=h)
• Cube=0.0277s Cylinder=0.03263s Spherical=0.482 s
•
•
09.04.22 CHAPTER 2 FOUNDARY 142
PROCESSES
09.04.22 143
09.04.22 CHAPTER 2 FOUNDARY 144
PROCESSES
09.04.22 CHAPTER 2 FOUNDARY 145
PROCESSES
09.04.22 CHAPTER 2 FOUNDARY 146
PROCESSES
09.04.22 CHAPTER 2 FOUNDARY 147
PROCESSES
09.04.22 CHAPTER 2 FOUNDARY 148
PROCESSES
09.04.22 CHAPTER 2 FOUNDARY 149
PROCESSES
09.04.22 CHAPTER 2 FOUNDARY 150
PROCESSES
Example: A job shown in the Figure is to be
made of steel by casting process. The mould
for this job is made from a wooden pattern.
Determine the dimensions of the wooden
pattern. Assume machining allowance of 2 mm
on each side, shrinkage allowance of 2% and
a taper allowance of 1 degree.
Solution
Step-1: Machining Allowance
It is given that machining
allowance of 2 mm on each
side is to be given. Thus, each
side is increased by 2 mm
resulting in the basic
dimension of the pattern as
shown in Figure (a). The
required casting is shown with
dotted lines.
Step-2 : Taper Allowance
We decide to cast the job horizontally
and use a solid pattern for this casting.
For this design, the draft allowance is
to be provided on the vertical sides (24
mm long). Considering the given taper
allowance of 1 degree, the side view of
the pattern would be as shown in
Figure (b).

The taper allowance value x is

calculated from the
x = 24 tan 1 = 0.419 mm.
Thus, the top surface dimension is
increased to provide for draft
allowance from
54  84 mm to 54.838  84.838 mm.
Step-3 Shrinkage Allowance:

Given shrinkage allowance is 2%. Now, the dimensions of

pattern are increased by 2% on all sides.
That is, dimension 54 mm will become
54 + (54*2)/100 = 55.08mm or 55.1mm
The dimension 54.838 will become 54.838 + (54.838*2)/100
= 55.9mm

Similarly, all other

dimensions are calculated
and the final dimensions of
the pattern are shown in
Figure
Example A job shown in Figure 2 is to be made from steel
by casting process. The mold for this job is made from
wooden pattern. Determine the dimensions of the wooden
pattern assuming machining allowance of 3 mm on each
side, shaking allowance of 1 mm on length and width,
shrinkage allowance of 3%
Step-1 : Machining Allowance
Since given machining allowance is 3 mm on each side,
add 3 mm on each side of the part shown in Figure. The
dimensions of the pattern after machining allowance will
be:

L = 80 + 23 = 86 mm
W = 40 + 2 3 = 46 mm
H = 30 + 2  3 = 36 mm
The dimensions of
the pattern after
adding machining
allowance are shown
in the following figure
…
Step-2 : shrinkage allowance

The shrinkage allowance of 3% is added to

all the dimensions of the pattern shown in
Figure. Dimension of the pattern after
providing shrinkage allowance of 3% will be:

L = 86 + 86  3/100 = 88.58 mm,

W = 46 + 46  3/100 = 47.38 mm
H = 36 + 36  3/100 = 37.08 mm
Step -3 : Shaking Allowance
Given shaking allowance is 1 mm on length and width.
Recall that, shaking allowance is a negative allowance.
Hence, 1 mm has to be reduced from the calculated
values of length and width side.
Students are advised to note that the height of the pattern
doesn’t require any shaking allowance.

Therefore, final dimension of the pattern

will be:
L = 88.58 – 1 = 87.58 mm
W = 47.38 – 1 = 46.38 mm
H = 37.08 mm
Example: A mold cavity has the shape of a
cube, 100 mm on a side. Determine the volume
and dimensions of the final cube after cooling to
room temperature if the cast metal is copper.
Assume that the mold is full at the start of
solidification and that shrinkage occurs uniformly
in all directions. For copper, solidification
shrinkage is 4.9%, solid contraction during
cooling is 7.5%.
Solution
Volume of cavity V
= (100)3
= 106 mm3

Volume of casting V
= 106(1-0.049)(1-0.075)
= 879,675 mm3

Dimension on each side of

cube
= (879,675)0.333
= 95.82 mm
 What will be the solidification time for a 11OO mm diameter and
33mm thick casting of Aluminum if the mould constant is 2.2 sec /sq.
mm?

09.04.22 CHAPTER 2 FOUNDARY 162

PROCESSES
04/09/22 163
 The permeability number

04/09/22 164
 Calculate the permeability number of sand if it takes 1 min 25 s to pass
2000 cm3 of air at a pressure of 5 g/ cm3 through the standard sample.

09.04.22 CHAPTER 2 FOUNDARY 165

PROCESSES
 The permeability of a moulding sand was
determined using a standard afs sample by
passing 2000cc of air at a gage pressure of
10g/ square cm. If the time taken 1 point
for the air to escape was 1 min ,the
permeability no is

09.04.22 CHAPTER 2 FOUNDARY 166

PROCESSES
use formula,

where 

 denotes permeability number, v dennotes volume of air passing through

specimen(in cm³) , h denotes height of specimen(in cm), P denotes difference
between upper and lower surface of test specimen( in cm hg), a denotes cross
sectional area of specimen and t denotes time in minutes.

here, v = 2000cc/cm³ , t = 1min, h = 5.08cm, P = 10g/cm² and a =6.4516cm²

so, 
η = 2000 × 1/(10 × 6.4516 × 5.08 )

= 157.48

hence, permeability number is 157.48

09.04.22 167
09.04.22 CHAPTER 2 FOUNDARY 168
PROCESSES
THE END