Unit – 1: Engineering

requirement of materials
1. Mechanical,
2. Thermal And
3. Technological Properties

By Khushbu Kumari
Scientist, ICAR-NDRI, Karnal
 Introduction

 The practical application of engineering materials in

manufacturing of equipments demands thorough
knowledge of their particular properties under wide range
of conditions.
 The term “property” is a qualitative or quantitative
measure of response of materials to externally imposed
conditions like forces and temperature.
Effect of force on the body:
• When a force is applied on a solid material, it may result in translation, rotation, or
deformation of that material. We restrict ourselves here to the subject of material
deformation under forces as the deformation of materrial depends upon their strength.
 Types of deformation

• Permanent deformation is irreversible i.e. stays even after

removal of the applied forces,
• while the temporary deformation disappears after removal of the
applied forces. It is also a function of time.
CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIAL PROPERTY:

Materials properties

physical

magnetic
Mechanical chemical
technological
thermal electrical
opitcal
Mechanical properties:

 The properties of materials that determines its behaviour under

applied forces are called mechanical properties.
 They are usually related to the elastic and plastic behaviour of the
material.
 These properties are expressed as the function of stress-strain etc
 A sound knowledge of mechanical properties of materials provides
the basis for predicting of materials under different load
conditions and designing the components out of them.
 Concepts of stress and strain
• Forces applied act on a surface of the material, and
thus the force intensity, force per unit area, is used in
analysis.
• Analogous to this, deformation is characterized by
percentage —change in length per unit length in three
distinct directions. 
• There are three principal ways in which a load may be
applied namely: tension, compression, and shear.
Tensile (normal) stress compressive (normal) stress Shear (tangential) stress

•The symbol σ (sigma) is commonly used to denote normal stresses. Therefore, σ = P/A.

•We can use the subscript ‘t’ to denote tensile stress and subscript ‘c’ to denote
compressive stress.

•Tangential stress is denoted by the symbol ꞇ (tau).

Strain: As the body is subjected to forces, the body deforms. Strain is a measure of the
deformation of the body. Just as there are two types of stresses, normal and tangential,
there are two types of strains, normal strain and tangential strain.

• Normal strain: are tensile or compressive.

• Strain = change in dimension/actual dimension; a dimensionless
quantity
Tensile Strain in the bar = + ΔLlL
Compressive strain in the bar = -ΔL/L
• The symbol for normal strain is ԑ(epsilon).

• Tangential or shear strain: The force P is applied tangential to the

top face of the block. The shear strain is the angle ø. tan ø = ΔL/L.
Experience shows that any materials subjected to a load may either
deform, yield or break, depending upon-
• The magnitude of load
• Nature of the material
• Cross sectional dimension
 The engineering stress and strain are based on the original sample
dimension which changes during test.
 True stress and strain on other hand based on actual or instantaneous
dimensions and are better representation of deformation behaviour
of the material.

Engineering stress and strain curve is based on True stress-strain curve

original area, it descends after maximum load
as the load bearing capacity of sample
decrease due to reduction in area.
Engineering stress – strain
curve
True stress-strain curve, continue to go up till
fracture as it is based on actual area
 Classification of mechanical properties:
1) Elasticity
2) Plasticity
3) Toughness
4) Resilience
5) Tensile strength
6) Yield strength
7) Impact strength
8) Ductility
9) Hardness
10) Fatigue
11) Creep
12) Wear resistance
 ELASTICITY
 The property of material by virtue of which
deformation caused by applied loads disappears upon
removal of load.
 Elasticity of the material is the power of coming back to its
original position after deformation when the stress or load is
removed.
• Hooke’s Law: An important relationship between stress and
strain is given by Hooke’s law, which states that stress is
proportional to strain so long as the material behaves elastically.

• Some materials show elastic properties till they have attained

considerable stress, while other materials exhibit such a property
only for very small values of stress. The stress up to which the
material behaves elastically is known as its elastic limit.

• Sir Robert Hooke first stated this property of a material in 1678

after noticing the linear relationship between applied forces and
deformations. Thus, stress is proportional to strain within the
elastic limit.
Stress α strain => Stress = a constant x strain
⁕ The physical reasons for elastic behavior can be quite different for
different materials. In metals, the atomic lattice changes size and
shape when forces are applied (energy is added to the system).
When forces are removed, the lattice goes back to the original lower
energy state.

⁕ In engineering, the amount of elasticity of a material is determined

by two types of material parameter.
⁕ Modulus
⁕ elastic limit
⁕ A modulus measures the amount of force per unit area (stress)
needed to achieve a given amount of deformation. The units of
modulus are pascals (Pa). A higher modulus typically indicates that
the material is harder to deform.
Typical stress-strain behavior
for a metal showing elastic
and plastic deformations,
the proportional limit P and
the yield strength σy, as
determined
using the 0.002 strain offset
method (where there
is noticeable plastic deformation).
P is the gradual
elastic to plastic
transition.

9
• elastic limit can be a stress beyond which the material no
longer behaves elastic and deformation of the material will
take place.

• If the stress is released, the material will elastically return

to a permanent deformed shape instead of the original
shape.

σ= ԑE is the mathematical form of Hooke’s law.

Example 1 Application of Hooke’s law
A circular bar 20 mm in diameter and 200 mm long is subjected to a force of 20 kN. Find
the stress, strain, and elongation in the bar if the value of E = 80 GPa.

Example 2 Young’s modulus of elasticity

The ratio of Young’s moduli of elasticity of two materials is 2.35. Find the ratio of the
stresses and elongations in two bars of these materials if they are of the same length and
same area and subjected to the same force P.

Example 3 Young’s modulus of elasticity

A bar of cross-sectional area 314 mm2 elongates by 0.8 mm over a length of 600 mm when
subjected to a tensile force of 12000 N. Find the Young’s modulus of elasticity of the
material of the bar.

Example 4 Young's modulus of elasticity of a circular pipe

A circular pipe of internal diameter 30 mm and thickness 4 mm is subjected to a force 30
kN and the elongation was measured as 1 mm. If the length of the pipe is 2 m, find the
value of Young's modulus of elasticity and the stress in the pipe.

Example 5 Stress in uniform bar

A uniform steel rod, 6 mm @and 0.5 m long, is subjected to a tensile force of 3 kN. Find
the stress in the bar and its elongation. E = 200 GPa.
 Plasticity:
 The plasticity of a material is its ability to undergo some degree of
permanent deformation without rupture or failure.

 Plastic deformation will take only after the elastic limit is

exceeded.
 It increases with increase in temperature.
Stress-strain curve for shows elasticity and
plasticity for materials:
The common tensile properties directly obtained from the stress–strain diagram
are:–

• Modulus of Elasticity, E: Young’s modulus, also known as the elastic modulus, is a

measure of the stiffness of a solid material. Stiffness is understood as resistance
of a material to deformation like elongation, twisting, bending, and deflection.

• Yield Tensile Strength, Sy. Yield strength is the stress at which a material exhibits
a deviation from the proportionality of stress to strain; i.e., the occurrence
permanents plastic strain is the case.

• Ultimate Tensile Strength, Su. UTS is the maximum stress developed by the
material based on the original cross-sectional area.

• Elongation at fracture or engineering strain: It is normally reported in %, that is

ef 100%.
Ductility:
It is the ability of a material to undergo plastic deformation without
fracture. It is the property because of which it is possible to draw
thin wires of a metal. Ductile materials can undergo large plastic
deformations before breaking.
Ex:- Copper and Mild steel are ductile material.
 There are two common measure of ductility:-
1). Percentage elongation:-% elongation describes the extent to
which specimen structure before repture.
% elongation=Lf-Lo/Lo*100
where,Lf= final gauge length
Lo = initial gauge length
2). Percentage reduction:- % reduction is a measure %
change in cross sectional area at point of fracture before and
after the test.
% reduction=Af-Ao/Ao*100
where,
Af= final cross sectional
area Ao= initial cross
sectional area
 The amount of ductility is an important factor when considering
forming operations such as rolling and extrusion. Ductility is also used
a quality control measure to assess the level of impurities and proper
processing of a material.
For ductile material, breaking strength is less than UTS, and necking
precedes fracture.
For brittle material, fracture usually occur before necking and
possibly before the onset of plastic flow.
Brittleness is the tendency of a material
to shatter on receiving a shock. This
happens due to lack of ductility. The
material does not have the capacity to
undergo large deformations before
failure.
Glass and certain high-strength steels
are brittle.
 Toughness
 Toughness is the ability of the material to absorb energy
during plastic deformation upto fracture.
 A material with high strength and high ductility will have more
toughness than a material with low strength and high ductility.
 Toughness is a good combination of strength and ductility.
 One way to measure toughness is by calculating the area under
the stress strain curve from a tensile test. This value is simply
called “material toughness” and it has units of energy per
volume.
 Material toughness equates to a slow absorption of energy by
the material.
several variables that have a profound influence on the toughness
of a material:-
1) Strain rate - metal may possess satisfactory toughness under
static loads but may fail under dynamic loads or impact. Toughness
decrease as the rate of loading increases.
 2)Temperature:- Temperature is the second variable to have a
major influence on its toughness. As temperature is lowered, the
ductility and toughness also decrease.

The amount of plastic deformation is restricted by the

surrounding material, which remains elastic.When a material is
prevented from deforming plastically, it fails in a brittle manner.
Stress-strain curve for a material with a high tensile strength
(ceramics) and a small toughness.
 Resilience
• is the ability of a material to recover its shape and size
after deformation.
• It is the strain energy stored by body up to elastic limit.
In other words, it is the recoverable/elastic strain
energy.
• It is characterized by the modulus of resilience, which is
the amount of energy stored in stressing the material to
the elastic limit as given by the area under the elastic
portion of the s–e diagram and can be defined as
 Hardness
• It is the property of a metal, which gives it the ability
to resist being permanently deformed when a load is
applied.

The greater the hardness of the metal, the greater

resistance against the deformation.
Measurement methods Hardness depends on
1. Rockwell hardness test 1. Ductility
2. Brinell hardness test 2. Elastic stiffness
3. Vickers hardness test 3. Plasticity
4. Knoop hardness 4. Strain
5. Shore 5. Toughness
6. Mohs test 6. Viscosity
7. Barcol hardness test
BRINELL HARDNESS TEST
FATIGUE
Metal fatigue is the progressive and localized structural
damage that occurs when a material is subjected to cyclic
loadings.

The highest stress that a material can withstand for an

infinite number of cycles without breaking called also
endurance limit

The greater the applied stress range, the shorter the life.
 Creep
• Creep is defined as a time-dependent material deformation under
continuous stress below the material’s yield strength.

•  It is commonly observed to be quite impactful under elevated

temperatures, especially with metals. Thus, Creep is more severe
in materials that are subjected to heat for long periods, and
generally increases as they near their melting point.

• Other names for creep include material creep and cold flow.

•Creep strength, also known as creep limit, is a measurement of a
material’s resistance to creep. It is also described as the stress at
particular environmental conditions that produces a constant creep
rate.
•In other words, creep strength is the maximum stress endured by a
material for a specific period of time without extreme deformation.
Creep development Influencing factors
Diffusion
Dislocation
Temperature
Stress
 Tensile strength  

• Tensile strength refers to the amount of load or stress that a

material can handle until it stretches and breaks.

• As its name implies, tensile strength is the material’s

resistance to tension caused by mechanical loads applied to it.
• Terms such as ultimate tensile strength (UTS) or ultimate
strength are used interchangeably with tensile strength.
Impact strength 
• also called impact toughness
• is the amount of energy that a material can withstand when
the said load is suddenly applied to it.
• It may also be defined as the threshold of force per unit area
before the material undergoes fracture
• Some of the factors that affect impact strength include: 
– temperature: impact strength increases with increasing temperature. 
– material thickness: increasing the thickness reduces impact strength. 
 Yield strength  
• Yield strength is the term used to refer to an indication of the
maximum stress that can be developed in a substance without causing
it to plastically deform.
• Yield strength is the stress point at which a material becomes
permanently deformed, providing a useful approximation of that
material’s elastic limit.
• Before reaching the yield point, the material will deform elastically, but
it will always revert to its original shape upon removal of the applied
stress. Once the yield point is exceeded, a small fraction of the
deformation experienced will become permanent and irreversible.
• Yield strength typically decreases with temperature and increases with
strain rate.
Wear
Wear is related to interactions between surfaces and
specifically the removal and deformation of material on a
surface as a result of mechanical action of the opposite
surface.

Classification
1)Adhesive wear 4)Fretting wear
2) Abrasive wear 5)Erosive wear
3)Surface fatigue 6)Corrosive and oxidation
wear
Measurement of wear

Tribometer Archard equation

Q=KWL/H
 where
• Q is the total volume of wear debris
produced
• K is a dimensionless constant
• W is the total normal load
• L is the sliding distance
• H is the hardness of the softest
contacting surfaces
• Note that is proportional to the work
done by the friction forces as
described by Reye's hypothesis.
TECHNOLOGICAL PROPERTIES
MACHINABILITY:
The ease with which a given material may be
worked or shaped with a cutting tool is called
machinability.
It is used to signify how well a material takes a
good finish. It may also be called finish ability.
Good machinability is associated with the following:
(i) High cutting speed.
(ii) Low power consumption.
(iii) Good surface finish.
(iv) Removal of material with moderate force.
(v) Medium degree of tool abrasion (longer tool life).
(vi) Formation of small chips.
 Machinability depends on the following
factors:
(i) Chemical composition of the (viii) Kind and shape of cutting
work piece material. tool.
(ii) Micro structure. (ix) Size and shape of cut.
(iii) Mechanical properties. (x) Coefficient of friction
(iv) Physical properties. between chip and tool
(v) Cutting conditions. material.
(vi) Coolant properties. (xi) Tool material.
(vii) Feed and depth of cut. (xii) Type of machine used.
(xiii) Type of machining
operation.
 Machinability Index
• The machinability of different metals to be machined may be
compared by using the machinability index of each material
which may be defined as follows:
 WELDABILITY:
• It is the ability of material to be joined by welding.

• Weldability is of significant importance for fabrication

of metals into various structures.

• Weldability depends on chemical composition, physical

properties and heat treatment to which they are
subjected.
 The weldability of a metal is affected by the following
factors:
(i) Composition of metal (iv) Welding technique
(ii) Brittleness of metal (v) Filler materials
(iii) Thermal properties (vi) Flux material
(vii) Strength of metal at high temperature
(viii) Stability of micro-constituents upto welding temperature
(ix) Affinity of oxygen and other gases before and at welding
temperature
(x) Shielding atmosphere
(xi) Proper heat treatment before and after deposition of
metal.
The following materials have good weldability in the
ascending order:
(i) Stainless steel
(ii) Low alloy steel;
(iii) Cast iron;
(iv) Carbon steel;
(v) Iron.
 CASTABILITY :
•the ease with which it can be cast into different shapes and is
concerned with the behavior of metal in its molten state.
• Following factors are favourable to castability of metal:
(i) Fluidity of metal
(ii) Low rate of shrinkage (It is the reduction in volume of a metal
when it goes from a molten to a solid state).
(iii) Low or negligible segregation (Excluding alloying elements
from the metal as they begin to solidify is known as
‘segregation’; segregation may be overcome by very slow
cooling of the metal or subsequent heat treatment).
(iv) Low gas porosity.
 Malleability:
• It is the ease with which the material undergoes too much
change in shape under compressive stress without rupture.
• The materials like soft steel, wrought iron, copper and
aluminium have good malleability. They can be hammered or
rolled into the desired shape without rupture.
• The degree of malleability is measured by the thickness of leaf
or foil which can be produced.
 Formability :
• Formability is the ability of metals of forming into different
shapes.
• The various factors which govern to a large extent, the flow
ability or ductility of the material are:
(i) Metal structure.
(ii) Grain size.
(iii) Hot and cold working.
(iv) Alloying elements.
(v) Softening heat treatments (Annealing and normalising).
STRAIN HARDENING :
The strengthening effect produced in metals by plastic deformation
(cold working ) is called strain hardening or work hardening. Strain
hardening reduces ductility and corrosion resistance but, raises the
hardness and electrical resistance.