CSE 326: Data Structures

Priority Queues – Binary

Heaps

1
 Recall Queues
• FIFO: First-In, First-Out

• Some contexts where this seems right?

• Some contexts where some things

should be allowed to skip ahead in the
line?
2
Queues that Allow Line Jumping
• Need a new ADT
• Operations: Insert an Item,
Remove the “Best” Item

6 2
15 23
insert deleteMin
12 18
45 3 7

3
 Priority Queue ADT
1. PQueue data : collection of data with
priority

2. PQueue operations
– insert
– deleteMin

3. PQueue property: for two elements in the

queue, x and y, if x has a lower priority
value than y, x will be deleted before y
4
 Applications of the Priority Queue

• Select print jobs in order of decreasing length

• Forward packets on routers in order of
urgency
• Select most frequent symbols for compression
• Sort numbers, picking minimum first

• Anything greedy

5
 Potential Implementations

insert deleteMin
Unsorted list (Array) O(1) O(n)
Unsorted list (Linked-List) O(1) O(n)

Sorted list (Array) O(n) O(1)*

Sorted list (Linked-List) O(n) O(1)

6
 Recall From Lists, Queues,
Stacks
• Use an ADT that corresponds to your
needs
• The right ADT is efficient, while an overly
general ADT provides functionality you
aren’t using, but are paying for anyways
• Heaps provide O(log n) worst case for
both insert and deleteMin, O(1) average
insert
7
 Binary Heap Properties
1. Structure Property
2. Ordering Property

8
 Tree Review Tree T
A
root(T):
leaves(T): B C
children(B):
parent(H): D E F G
siblings(E):
H I
ancestors(F):
descendents(G):
subtree(C): J K L M N

9
 More Tree Terminology Tree T
A
depth(B):

height(G): B C

degree(B): D E F G
branching factor(T):
H I

J K L M N

10
 Brief interlude: Some Definitions:
A Perfect binary tree – A binary tree with
all leaf nodes at the same depth. All
internal nodes have 2 children.
height h
11 2h+1 – 1 nodes
2h – 1 non-leaves
5 21 2h leaves
2 9 16 25
1 3 7 10 13 19 22 30

11
 Heap Structure Property
• A binary heap is a complete binary tree.
Complete binary tree – binary tree that is
completely filled, with the possible exception
of the bottom level, which is filled left to right.
Examples:

12
 Representing Complete
Binary Trees in an Array
1 A From node i:
2 3
B C
4
D 5
E
6
F
7
G
left child:
8 9 10 11 12 right child:
H I J K L
parent:

implicit (array) implementation:

A B C D E F G H I J K L
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

13
Why this approach to storage?

14
 Heap Order Property
Heap order property: For every non-root
node X, the value in the parent of X is
less than (or equal to) the value in X.

10
10
20 80
20 80
40 60 85 99
30 15
50 700
not a heap

15
 Heap Operations
• findMin:
• insert(val): percolate up.
• deleteMin: percolate down.
10

20 80

40 60 85 99

50 700 65

16
 Heap – Insert(val)
Basic Idea:
1. Put val at “next” leaf position
2. Percolate up by repeatedly
exchanging node until no longer
needed

17
Insert: percolate up
10

20 80

40 60 85 99

50 700 65 15

10

15 80

40 20 85 99
50 700 65 60

18
 Insert Code (optimized)
void insert(Object o) { int percolateUp(int hole,
Object val) {
assert(!isFull());
while (hole > 1 &&
size++; val < Heap[hole/2])
newPos = Heap[hole] = Heap[hole/2];
hole /= 2;
percolateUp(size,o);
}
Heap[newPos] = o; return hole;
} }

runtime:

(Code in book) 19
 Heap – Deletemin
Basic Idea:
1. Remove root (that is always the min!)
2. Put “last” leaf node at root
3. Find smallest child of node
4. Swap node with its smallest child if needed.
5. Repeat steps 3 & 4 until no swaps needed.

20
DeleteMin: percolate down
10

20 15

40 60 85 99

50 700 65

15

20 65

40 60 85 99

50 700
21
 DeleteMin Code (Optimized)
Object deleteMin() { int percolateDown(int hole,
Object val) {
assert(!isEmpty());
while (2*hole <= size) {
returnVal = Heap[1]; left = 2*hole;
size--; right = left + 1;
if (right ≤ size &&
newPos =
Heap[right] < Heap[left])
percolateDown(1, target = right;
Heap[size+1]); else
target = left;
Heap[newPos] =
Heap[size + 1]; if (Heap[target] < val) {
return returnVal; Heap[hole] = Heap[target];
hole = target;
}
}
else
runtime: break;
}
(code in book) return hole; 22
}
 Insert: 16, 32, 4, 69, 105, 43, 2

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

23
Data Structures

Binary Heaps

24
 Building a Heap
12 5 11 3 10 6 9 4 8 1 7 2

25
 Building a Heap
• Adding the items one at a time is O(n
log n) in the worst case

• I promised O(n) for today

26
 Working on Heaps
• What are the two properties of a heap?
– Structure Property
– Order Property

• How do we work on heaps?

– Fix the structure
– Fix the order

27
 BuildHeap: Floyd’s Method
12 5 11 3 10 6 9 4 8 1 7 2

Add elements arbitrarily to form a complete tree.

Pretend it’s a heap and fix the heap-order property!

12

5 11

3 10 6 9

4 8 1 7 2 28
 Buildheap pseudocode
private void buildHeap() {
for ( int i = currentSize/2; i > 0; i-- )
percolateDown( i );
}

runtime:

29
BuildHeap: Floyd’s Method

12

5 11

3 10 6 9

4 8 1 7 2

30
 BuildHeap: Floyd’s Method
12

5 11

3 10 2 9

4 8 1 7 6

31
 BuildHeap: Floyd’s Method
12 12

5 11 5 11

3 10 2 9 3 1 2 9

4 8 1 7 6 4 8 10 7 6

32
 BuildHeap: Floyd’s Method
12 12

5 11 5 11

3 10 2 9 3 1 2 9

4 8 1 7 6 4 8 10 7 6
12

5 2

3 1 6 9

33
4 8 10 7 11
 BuildHeap: Floyd’s Method
12 12

5 11 5 11

3 10 2 9 3 1 2 9

4 8 1 7 6 4 8 10 7 6
12 12

5 2 1 2

3 1 6 9 3 5 6 9

34
4 8 10 7 11 4 8 10 7 11
 Finally…
1

3 2

4 5 6 9

12 8 10 7 11

runtime:
35
 More Priority Queue
• decreaseKey
Operations
– given a pointer to an object in the queue, reduce its priority value

Solution: change priority and ____________________________

• increaseKey
– given a pointer to an object in the queue, increase its priority value

Solution: change priority and _____________________________

Why do we need a pointer? Why not simply data value?

36
More Priority Queue Operations
• Remove(objPtr)
– given a pointer to an object in the queue,
remove the object from the queue

Solution: set priority to negative infinity,

percolate up to root and deleteMin

• FindMax

37
 Facts about Heaps
Observations:
• Finding a child/parent index is a multiply/divide by two
• Operations jump widely through the heap
• Each percolate step looks at only two new nodes
• Inserts are at least as common as deleteMins

Realities:
• Division/multiplication by powers of two are equally fast
• Looking at only two new pieces of data: bad for cache!
• With huge data sets, disk accesses dominate

38
 Cycles to access:

CPU

Cache

Memory

Disk

39
 A Solution: d-Heaps
• Each node has d
children 1
• Still representable by
array 3 7 2
• Good choices for d:
– (choose a power of two 4 8 5 12 11 10 6 9
for efficiency)
– fit one set of children in a 12 1 3 7 2 4 8 5 12 11 10 6 9
cache line
– fit one set of children on a
memory page/disk block
40
 One More Operation
• Merge two heaps

• Add the items from one into another?

– O(n log n)

• Start over and build it from scratch?

– O(n)

41
CSE 326: Data Structures

Priority Queues
Leftist Heaps & Skew Heaps

42
 New Heap Operation: Merge
Given two heaps, merge them into one heap
– first attempt: insert each element of the
smaller heap into the larger.
runtime:

– second attempt: concatenate binary heaps’

arrays and run buildHeap.
runtime:

43
 Leftist Heaps
Idea:
Focus all heap maintenance work in
one small part of the heap

Leftist heaps:
1. Most nodes are on the left
2. All the merging work is done on the right

44
 Definition: Null Path Length
null path length (npl) of a node x = the number of nodes between x
and a null in its subtree
OR
npl(x) = min distance to a descendant with 0 or 1 children

• npl(null) = -1 ?
• npl(leaf) = 0
• npl(single-child node) = 0 ? ?

Equivalent definitions: 0 1 ? 0

1. npl(x) is the height of largest

complete subtree rooted at x 0 0 0
2. npl(x) = 1 + min{npl(left(x)), npl(right(x))}
45
 Leftist Heap Properties
• Heap-order property
– parent’s priority value is  to childrens’ priority values
– result: minimum element is at the root

• Leftist property
– For every node x, npl(left(x))  npl(right(x))
– result: tree is at least as “heavy” on the left as the right

46
 Are These Leftist?
2 2 0

1 1 1 1 0

0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0
Every subtree of a leftist
0
tree is leftist!
0
47
Right Path in a Leftist Tree is Short (#1)
Claim: The right path is as short as any in the tree.
Proof: (By contradiction)

Pick a shorter path: D1 < D2

Say it diverges from right path at x
x
npl(L)  D1-1 because of the path of
length D1-1 to null L R
D1 D2
npl(R)  D2-1 because every node on
right path is leftist

Leftist property at x violated! 48

Right Path in a Leftist Tree is Short (#2)
Claim: If the right path has r nodes, then the tree
has at least
2r-1 nodes.
Proof: (By induction)
Base case : r=1. Tree has at least 21-1 = 1 node
Inductive step : assume true for r’< r. Prove for tree with
right path at least r.
1. Right subtree: right path of r-1 nodes
 2r-1-1 right subtree nodes (by induction)
2. Left subtree: also right path of length at least r-1 (by
previous slide)  2r-1-1 left subtree nodes (by induction)
Total tree size: (2r-1-1) + (2r-1-1) + 1 = 2r-1
49
 Why do we have the leftist
property?
Because it guarantees that:
• the right path is really short compared to
the number of nodes in the tree
• A leftist tree of N nodes, has a right path
of at most lg (N+1) nodes

Idea – perform all work on the right path

50
Merge two heaps (basic idea)
• Put the smaller root as the new root,
• Hang its left subtree on the left.
• Recursively merge its right subtree and
the other tree.

51
 Merging Two Leftist Heaps
• merge(T1,T2) returns one leftist heap containing all
elements of the two (distinct) leftist heaps T 1 and T2

merge
T1 a a
merge

L1 R1 L1 R1
a<b
T2 b b

L2 R2 L2 R2 52
 Merge Continued
a a
If npl(R’) > npl(L1)

L1 R’ R’ L1

R’ = Merge(R1, T2)

runtime:
53
 Let’s do an example, but first…
Other Heap Operations

• insert ?

• deleteMin ?

54
 Operations on Leftist Heaps
• merge with two trees of total size n: O(log n)
• insert with heap size n: O(log n)
– pretend node is a size 1 leftist heap
– insert by merging original heap with one node
heap
merge

• deleteMin with heap size n: O(log n)

– remove and return root
– merge left and right subtrees

merge
55
 Leftest Merge Example
merge
?
1 3
5
0 0
0 merge
10 12 7 1 ?
5 5
0
1 14
3 0 0 0 merge
10 12 10 0
0 0 12
7 8 0 0
8 8
0
14

0
(special case) 8
0
12
56
 Sewing Up the Example
? ? 1
3 3 3
0 0 0
7 ? 7 1 7 5 1
5 5
0 0 0 0 0
14 0 0 0
10 0 14 14 10 8
8 10 8
0
0 0 12
12 12
Done?

57
 Finally…
1 1
3 3
0 0
7 5 1 5 1 7
0 0 0 0 0 0
14 10 8 10 8 14
0 0
12 12

58
 Leftist Heaps: Summary
Good
•
•

Bad
•
•
59
 Random Definition:
Amortized Time
am·or·tized time:
Running time limit resulting from “writing off” expensive
runs of an algorithm over multiple cheap runs of the
algorithm, usually resulting in a lower overall running time
than indicated by the worst possible case.
If M operations take total O(M log N) time,
amortized time per operation is O(log N)

Difference from average time:

60
 Skew Heaps
Problems with leftist heaps
– extra storage for npl
– extra complexity/logic to maintain and check npl
– right side is “often” heavy and requires a switch
Solution: skew heaps
– “blindly” adjusting version of leftist heaps
– merge always switches children when fixing right
path
– amortized time for: merge, insert, deleteMin = O(log
n)
– however, worst case time for all three = O(n)
61
 Merging Two Skew Heaps
merge
T1 a a
merge

L1 R1 R1 L1
a<b

T2 b b

L2 R2 L2 R2

Only one step per iteration, with children always switched 62

 Example
merge
5 3 3
merge
10 12 7 5 7
5
merge
3 14 12 10 14
10 12
8
7 8 8
3
14
5 7

8 10 14
63
12
 Skew Heap Code
void merge(heap1, heap2) {
case {
heap1 == NULL: return heap2;
heap2 == NULL: return heap1;
heap1.findMin() < heap2.findMin():
temp = heap1.right;
heap1.right = heap1.left;
heap1.left = merge(heap2, temp);
return heap1;
otherwise:
return merge(heap2, heap1);
}
}

64
 Runtime Analysis:
Worst-case and Amortized
• No worst case guarantee on right path
length!
• All operations rely on merge

 worst case complexity of all ops =

• Probably won’t get to amortized analysis in
this course, but see Chapter 11 if curious.
• Result: M merges take time M log n

 amortized complexity of all ops =

65
 Comparing Heaps
• Binary Heaps • Leftist Heaps

• d-Heaps • Skew Heaps

Still room for improvement! (Where?) 66

Data Structures
Binomial Queues

67
 Yet Another Data Structure:
Binomial Queues
• Structural property
– Forest of binomial trees with at most
one tree of any height
What’s a forest?

What’s a binomial tree?

• Order property
– Each binomial tree has the heap-order
property
68
 The Binomial Tree, Bh
• Bh has height h and exactly 2h nodes
• Bh is formed by making Bh-1 a child of another Bh-1
• Root has exactly h children
• Number of nodes at depth d is binomial coeff.
– Hence the name; we will not use this last property
h
 
d 

B0 B1 B2 B3

69
 Binomial Queue with n elements
Binomial Q with n elements has a unique structural
representation in terms of binomial trees!

Write n in binary: n = 1101 (base 2) = 13 (base 10)

1 B3 1 B2 No B1 1 B0

70
 Properties of Binomial Queue
• At most one binomial tree of any height

• n nodes  binary representation is of size ?

 deepest tree has height ?
 number of trees is ?

Define: height(forest F) = maxtree T in F { height(T) }

Binomial Q with n nodes has height Θ(log n)

71
 Operations on Binomial Queue
• Will again define merge as the base operation
– insert, deleteMin, buildBinomialQ will use merge

• Can we do increaseKey efficiently?

decreaseKey?

• What about findMin?

72
 Merging Two Binomial Queues
Essentially like adding two binary numbers!
1. Combine the two forests
2. For k from 0 to maxheight {
a. m  total number of Bk’s in the two BQs
b. if m=0: continue; # of 1’s
c. if m=1: continue; 0+0 = 0
d. if m=2: combine the two Bk’s to form a1+0 = 1
Bk+1 1+1 = 0+c
e. if m=3: retain one Bk and 1+1+c = 1+c
combine the other two to form a Bk+1
}
Claim: When this process ends, the forest
has at most one tree of any height 73
 Example: Binomial Queue
Merge
H1: H2:

21 1 -1 3 5

7 2 1 3 9 6

8 11 5 7

74
 Example: Binomial Queue
Merge
H1: H2:

1 -1 3 5

7 2 1 3 21 9 6

8 11 5 7

75
 Example: Binomial Queue
Merge
H1: H2:

1 -1 5

7 3 2 1 3 9 6

21 8 11 5 7

76
 Example: Binomial Queue
Merge
H1: H2:

1 -1

7 3 5 2 1 3

21 9 6 8 11 5

7 6

77
 Example: Binomial Queue
Merge
H1: H2:
-1

2 1 3 1

8 11 5 7 3 5

6 21 9 6

78
 Example: Binomial Queue
Merge
H1: H2:
-1

2 1 3 1

8 11 5 7 3 5

6 21 9 6

79
 Complexity of Merge
Constant time for each height
Max number of heights is: log n

 worst case running time = Θ( )

80
 Insert in a Binomial Queue
Insert(x): Similar to leftist or skew heap

runtime
Worst case complexity: same as merge
O( )

Average case complexity: O(1)

Why?? Hint: Think of adding 1 to 1101

81
 deleteMin in Binomial Queue
Similar to leftist and skew heaps….

82
 deleteMin: Example
BQ 7
3
4
8 5

find and delete

smallest root
merge BQ
(without
the shaded part)
8 5 and BQ’
BQ’
7
83
 deleteMin: Example
Result:
7
4

8 5

runtime:
84