ENGINEERING METALLURGY

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 INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING
MATERIALS
Common type of materials

Metals Ceramics Polymers

Composites

Structure

The Materials Tetrahedron

Properties Performance

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 METALLURGY

Science of Metallurgy

PHYSICAL MECHANICAL ELECTRO- TECHNOLOGICAL

CHEMICAL

• Extractive
• Structure • Casting
• Deformation •Chemistry
• Physical • Metal Forming
Behaviour • Corrosion
Properties • Welding
• Powder Metallurgy
• Machining

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 Thermo-mechanical
Treatments

Crystal

Atom Structure Microstructure Component

Electro-
magnetic Phases + Defects

• Vacancies
• Dislocations
• Twins Residual
+ Stress
• Stacking Faults
• Grain Boundaries
• Voids
• Cracks

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microstructure of a component
 Crystal Structure
• An ideal crystal is a periodic array of
structural units, such as atoms or molecules.
• It can be constructed by the infinite repetition
of these identical structural units in space.
• Structure can be described in terms of a
lattice, with a group of atoms attached to each
lattice point. The group of atoms is the basis.

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• Unit cell: smallest repetitive volume which
contains the complete lattice pattern of a
crystal.
• 7 crystal systems of varying
symmetry are known, These
systems are built by changing the lattice
parameters:
a, b, and c are the edge lengths,
, , and  are inter axial angles

Fig. 3.4, Callister 7e.

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Basic types of crystal structures

SC BCC FCC

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 Atomic Packing Factor (APF)
Volume of atoms in unit cell*
APF =
Volume of unit cell
*assume hard spheres
• APF for a simple cubic structure = 0.52
volume
atoms atom
a 4
unit cell 1 p (0.5a) 3
R=0.5a 3
APF =
a3 volume
close-packed directions
unit cell
contains (8 x 1/8) =
1 atom/unit cell Here: a = Rat*2
Adapted from Fig. 3.23,
Where Rat is the ‘handbook’ atomic
Callister 7e.
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radiusVaidya
 Body Centered Cubic Structure (BCC)
• Atoms touch each other along cube diagonals.
--Note: All atoms are identical; the center atom is shaded
differently only for ease of viewing.

ex: Cr, W, Fe (), Tantalum, Molybdenum

• Coordination # = 8

Adapted from Fig. 3.2,

Callister 7e.

2 atoms/unit cell: (1 center) + (8 corners x 1/8)

(Courtesy P.M. Anderson)
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 Atomic Packing Factor: BCC
3a

2a
Close-packed directions:
R
a length = 4R = 3 a

atoms volume
4
unit cell 2 p ( 3a/4) 3
3 atom
APF =
volume
Adapted from
Fig. 3.2(a), Callister 7e.
a3
unit cell
• APF for a body-centered cubic
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 Hexagonal Close-Packed Structure (HCP)
ex: Cd, Mg, Ti, Zn
• ABAB... Stacking Sequence
• 3D Projection • 2D Projection

A sites
Top layer
c
B sites
Middle layer
A sites
a Adapted from Fig. 3.3(a),
Bottom layer
Callister 7e.

• Coordination # = 12 6 atoms/unit cell

• APF = 0.74
• c/a = 1.633 (ideal)
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 CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC DEFECT
Crystalline solids exhibit a periodic crystal structure. The positions of
atoms or molecules occur on repeating fixed distances, determined by the
unit cell parameters. However, the arrangement of atoms or molecules in
most crystalline materials is not perfect. The regular patterns are
interrupted by crystallographic defects

Electron microscopy of antisites (a, Mo

substitutes for S) and vacancies (b, missing
S atoms) in a monolayer of 
molybdenum disulfide. Scale bar: 1 nm.[1]

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Point defects
• Point defects are defects that occur only at or
around a single lattice point. They are not extended
in space in any dimension.
• However, these defects typically involve at most a
few extra or missing atoms.
• Larger defects in an ordered structure are usually
considered dislocation loops.
• These dislocations permit ionic transport through
crystals leading to electrochemical reactions.
point defect types in a monatomic solid

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Vacancy defects 
•are lattice sites which would be occupied in a perfect crystal, but are vacant.

• If a neighboring atom moves to occupy the vacant site, the vacancy moves in the
opposite direction to the site which used to be occupied by the moving atom.

•The stability of the surrounding crystal structure guarantees that the neighboring
atoms will not simply collapse around the vacancy.

•In some materials, neighboring atoms actually move away from a vacancy,
because they experience attraction from atoms in the surroundings.

•Interstitial defects 
•are atoms that occupy a site in the crystal structure at which there is usually not
an atom. They are generally high energy configurations.

•Small atoms in some crystals can occupy interstices without high energy, such as 
hydrogen in palladium.

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 Line Defects
•Dislocations are linear defects, around which (the atoms of the crystal lattice
are misaligned. There are two basic types of dislocations, the edge dislocation
and the screw dislocation. "Mixed" dislocations, combining aspects of both
types, are also common.
•Edge dislocations are caused by the termination of a plane of atoms in the
middle of a crystal. In such a case, the adjacent planes are not straight, but
instead bend around the edge of the terminating plane so that the crystal
structure is perfectly ordered on either side.
•The screw dislocation is more difficult to visualise, but basically comprises a
structure in which a helical path is traced around the linear defect (dislocation
line) by the atomic planes of atoms in the crystal lattice.
•The presence of dislocation results in lattice strain (distortion). For an edge
type, b is perpendicular to the dislocation line, whereas in the cases of the
screw type it is parallel. In metallic materials, b is aligned with close-packed
crystallographic directions and its magnitude is equivalent to one inter-atomic
spacing.

The dislocation line is presented in blue

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 PLANAR DEFECTS

•Grain boundaries occur where the crystallographic

direction of the lattice abruptly changes. This usually
occurs when two crystals begin growing separately
and then meet.
•Antiphase boundaries occur in ordered alloys: in this
case, the crystallographic direction remains the same,
but each side of the boundary has an opposite
phase: 

Origin of stacking faults: Different stacking

sequences of close-packed crystals

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