Construction VI

OTHER LONG SPAN STRUCTURES

Khushali Agarwal Prajakta Sahare Raunak Raj Shruti Tare
ARC 020 ARC 038 ARC 041 ARC 050
Nakka Vineetha Pranita Varma Samriddhi Khare Shubham Kumar
ARC 030 ARC 039 ARC 046 ARC 052
Padmanabha G Rahul Batwal Shashwat Saxena Sonali Samad
ARC 033 ARC 040 ARC 048 ARC 055
INDEX

1. Catenary Structures
2. Suspension Structures
3. Tensile Structures
4. Pneumatic Structures
5. Bibliography
A catenary arch is a type of architectural arch that follows an inverted catenary curve. The
catenary curve has been employed in buildings since ancient times. It forms an underlying
principle to the overall system of vaults and buttresses in stone vaulted Gothic cathedrals
and in Renaissance domes.

CATENARY STRUCTURES
CATENARY STRUCTURE

• In physics or geometry, a cable or a chain hanging freely and acting under its own weight,
supported only at its end points (not in a vertical line) and with no other load, takes the
form of a catenary.

• This is different to the loaded cables supporting a suspension bridge, which take the form
of a parabola.

• In architecture and engineering, catenaries are used in bridge and arch design to avoid
bending moments
HISTORY

• The application of the catenary to the

construction of arches is attributed
to Robert Hooke.

• However, the dome of the Florence

Cathedral, completed structurally in
1436, follows a catenary arch, which
its builder seems to have been aware
of, meaning that the principle of using
a catenary as a good solution
(although not at that time
mathematically proven to be optimum)
for self-supporting structures
INVERTED CATENARY ARCH
• Catenary arches are often used in the
construction of kilns.
• To create the desired curve, the shape
of a hanging chain of the desired
dimensions is transferred to a form
which is then used as a guide for the
placement of bricks or other building
material.
• The Gateway Arch in St. Louis,
Missouri, United States is sometimes
said to be an (inverted) catenary, but
this is incorrect.
EXAMPLES
CATENARY BRIDGES
• In free-hanging chains, the force
exerted is uniform with respect to
length of the chain, and so the chain
follows the catenary curve.
• The same is true of a simple
suspension bridge or "catenary
bridge," where the roadway follows the
cable.
ANCHORING OF MARINE OBJECTS
• The catenary produced by gravity provides an advantage to heavy anchor rodes.

• An anchor rode (or anchor line) usually consists of chain or cable or both.

• Anchor rodes are used by ships, oil rigs, docks, floating wind turbines, and other marine
equipment which must be anchored to the seabed.
EXAMPLES
• Antonio Gaudi, the creative Spanish
artist said "There are no straight lines
or sharp corners in nature." Gaudi
designed a unique apartment building
in Barcelona called Casa Mila.
• Gaudi's creations are actually the
shape of a catenary.
EXAMPLE
• In Minneapolis, Minnesota the
Marquette Plaza designed by Gunnar
Birkerts, is a fabulous example of a
building where the centenary is not
only an integral part of the exterior
design, but also provides a very
unique visual image.
EXAMPLE
• The stunning Kingdom Towers
designed by Ellerbe Becket & Omrania
is located in Riyadh, a city in Saudi
Arabia.
• The incorporation of the out of the
ordinary mathematical shape is part of
the breathtaking architectural design.
ADVANTAGES
• The force needed to hold the curve is concentrated at the support points which are
stiffened by deep foundations. Similarly, all lateral and vertical loads applied to the
structure are efficiently transferred to the support points.
• he theoretical advantage is that mass is minimized. As mass is often a good surrogate for
cost, it follows that catenary structures are often cheap (though ruled forms may be
cheaper the structure is to be built out of metal girders, because girders tend to be
straight).
• The catenary is the natural shape of a hanging chain, which must, by definition, be
loaded purely in tension. If the shape is inverted to form an arch, then that arch would be
loaded purely in compression.
• In either case, you've got a (somewhat) complicated shape, but a very simple load path,
and this means that it's a relatively simple job to make sure that the structural stress is
optimized (the trade is between safety margin and material mass).
DISADVANTAGES
• Catenary Structures do have a maximum length to consider.
• This design option can become unstable in specific environments.
• Catenary Structures can be challenging to inspect and repair.
• It is a design that can sometimes be susceptible to rust or corrosion.
• The strength advantages typically apply to short spans.
Suspended Structures are those with horizontal planes i.e. floors are supported by cables
(hangers) hung from the parabolic sag of large, high-strength steel cables. The strength of a
suspended structure is derived from the parabolic form of the sagging high strength cable.

SUSPENSION STRUCTURES
HISTORY OF SUSPENSION STRUCTURES
• Suspension roofs were first proposed and constructed by V. G. Shukhov in 1896 during
the construction of the pavilions for the Nizhny Novgorod Fair, one of which was the
central building of the engineering and construction pavilion, built on a circular foundation
with a diameter of 68 m. Outside Russia, the development of modern suspension
structures for roofs began in the 1930’s. They became widespread after World War II.
PARTS OF A SUSPENSION STRUCTURE
• The basic structural components of a suspension system include stiffening
girders/trusses, the main suspension cables, main towers, and the anchorages for the
cables at each end.
• The main cables are suspended between towers and are finally connected to the
anchorage, and vertical suspenders carry the weight.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SUSPENSION
STRUCTURES
• These are long span structures using catenary
• Structural system comprising of space frames.
• Catenary in the true sense i.e. not frozen, not inverted.
• Strength of a cable when drawn increases by 4 times
• Steel cable provided more reliability in the structural strength than jute or nylon ropes.
TYPES OF SUSPENSION STRUCTURES

• Suspension structures may be either plane or

spatial. The simplest form of plane structure is
a wire fastened to supports and from which are
suspended elements that take the local stress.
Modern plane suspension structures are used
mainly in bridges and roofs, ropeways, and
overpasses for pipelines.
• Spatial suspension structures are exceedingly
varied and are distinguished by the means
used to increase their stability and strength, as
well as by the features of their structural design
(single-boom, double-boom, and saddle types).
• Spatial suspension structures are generally
used for large-span roofs of public and
industrial buildings.
TYPES OF SUSPENSION STRUCTURES

• Single-boom suspension roofs are systems

of parallel wires, a grid, or diaphragms that
form cylindrical or paraboloid surfaces. The
cross load is usually transmitted to the
supporting elements by decking. The
stiffness of the structure is increased by
increasing the weight of the decking or by
making it in one piece, by making the
system into a suspension envelope, or—
when using light decking—by the
introduction of guy wires. Double-boom
coverings are prestressed systems
consisting of rectilinear booms whose
convex sides face in opposite directions.
TYPES OF SUSPENSION STRUCTURES
• Saddle-type suspension roofs usually consist of systems of intersecting concave and
convex wires that form either a grid or an envelope in the form of a hyperbolic paraboloid.
The. majority of such structures are prestressed. A major step in the development of
suspension structures was the construction in 1953 in the USA (North Carolina) of a roller
skating rink with a saddle-type suspension roof according to the plans of the architect M.
Nowicki.
ADVANTAGES OF SUSPENSION STRUCTURES
• Suspension structures, which are usually erected without scaffolding (light lifting
mechanisms are used), make possible a reduction in construction costs and time; this
makes them a promising form, since they can respond to the growing demand for
buildings and structures with large spans.
• Cable should be tightened in such a way that the cable does not get sheared off; hence
sleeve is provided to relieve pressure from
• Suspenders may be rigid or flexible
• Increased strength of drawn cables 160000 pounds per square inch. Therefore saving of
material. Therefore maximum use of minimum material.
DISADVANTAGES OF SUSPENSION STRUCTURES
• Considerable stiffness or aerodynamic profiling may be required to prevent the bridge
deck vibrating under high winds
• The relatively low deck stiffness compared to other (non-suspension) types of bridges
makes it more difficult to carry heavy rail traffic where high concentrated live loads occur
• Some access below may be required during construction, to lift the initial cables or to lift
deck units. This access can often be avoided in cable-stayed bridge construction.
Tensile structure, in building construction, a thin, curved plate structure shaped to transmit
applied forces by compressive, tensile, and shear stresses that act in the plane of the
surface. They are usually constructed of concrete reinforced with steel mesh

TENSILE STRUCTURES
INTRODUCTION
• In mechanical engineering, tensile structures is a type of rigid
construction. A tensile structures has its compression-taking elements
localized and its tension-taking elements distributed. Typically, the main
frame has rectangular structure and is triangulated by the covering.
HISTORY
• Interest in stressed skin construction in the U.K. was aroused in the mid
1950's when tests on a number of complete, clad, steel framed structures
revealed that the measured stresses and deflections were significantly
less than those predicted by the design calculations.
• Typically, these structures were warehouse or workshop buildings with no
internal floors or partitions so that the only explanation available was that
the cladding (corrugated steel or asbestos sheet) was assisting the
frames to carry the loads.
CHARACTERISTICS
• The main characteristic of tensile structure is a very thin membrane .
• This membrane is made structurally possible by providing restraint at the edges such that
the bending stresses in it are so small as to be to negligible or are completely eliminated.
• Membrane is only subjected to direct stresses within its thickness.
CLASSIFICATION
• Classification by Shape
• Single curvature shell
• These are curved one linear
axis and are a part of a cylinder
or cone in the form of barrel
vaults and conoid shells.
• Double curvature shell
• These are either part of a
sphere, or a hyperboloid of
revolution.
SINGLE CURVATURE SHELL

• A surface that can be unrolled onto a flat plane

without tearing or stretching it.
• These are curved on one linear axis and are a part
of a cylinder or cone in the form of barrel vaults and
conoid shells.
• It is formed by bending a flat plane, the most typical
shape of a developable shell is a barrel, and a
barrel shell is curved only in one direction.
DOUBLE CURVATURE SHELL
• A surface that cannot be unrolled onto a flat plane
without tearing or stretching it.
• These are either part of a sphere, or a hyperboloid of
revolution.

TYPES
• Synclastic surfaces are those in which the centres or
curvature are on the same side of the surface. 
• Anticlastic surfaces are those in which the centres of
curvature are located on opposing sides of the
surface.
CLASSIFICATION

• Classification by Material
• Concrete
• Stone
• Bamboo
• Clay Bricks & Tiles
• Timber Framed
• Metal Framed
ADVANTAGES
• Very light form of construction. To span 30.0 m
shell thickness required is 60mm
• Dead load can be reduced economizing
foundation and supporting system
• They further take advantage of the fact that
arch shapes can span longer
• Its concave soffit reflects and helps to disperse
light over area below.
• Aesthetically it looks good over other forms of
construction
DISADVANTAGES
• Shuttering problem
• Greater accuracy in formwork is required
• Good labour and supervision necessary
• Rise of roof may be a disadvantage
• Shell structure is more expensive due to
considerable labour required to construct
the centering on which the shell is cast.
A pneumatic structure is a system of components that is supported by air in the same manner
that a balloon is supported by air. The components of a pneumatic structure consist of a
membrane, supporting cables, and an anchorage system.

PNEUMATIC STRUCTURES
INTRODUCTION
• Pneumatic structure is a structure that is stabilized by the pressure of compressed air.
Air-supported structures are supported by internal air pressure. A network of cables
stiffens the fabric, and the assembly is supported by a rigid ring at the edge.
• The air pressure within this bubble is increased slightly above normal atmospheric
pressure and maintained by compressors or fans. Air locks are required at entrances to
prevent loss of internal air pressure.
HISTORY
• The concept of pneumatic structures were developed during the development of hot air balloons.
• A brazilian priest Gusmao conducted the first experiment in 1709.
• During second world war, after the invention of nylon, these structures were widely used in military
operations, as shelters.
• These were later used for protecting radar from extreme weather conditions.
• The Romans are reputed to have developed pneumatic envelopes using treated animal skins and
intestines for support in water and the Chinese developed the first aerial balloons from paper. In the
18th century, close weaved cotton fabric made man-carrying hot air balloons possible.
CHARACTERISTICS
• LIGHT-WEIGHT - The weight of the structure area can be brought down in 6 hours and can
as compared to the area it covers is very less. be establish in less than 10 hours.
• The weight of the membrane roof, even
• ECONOMY - It is not expensive when it is
when it is stiffened by cables, is very small. •
used as temporary structures.
Low air pressure is sufficient to balance it..
• GOOD NATURAL LIGHTING - If envelope is
• SPAN - There is no theoretical maximum
made up of transparent material, good natural
span. • To span a distance of 36 km for a
light enter into the structure. • Around 50% –
normal building is hard while such spans are
80% of sunlight can be obtained.
quite possible for pneumatics.
• HUMAN HEALTH - In most cases, pressure of
• SAFETY - Pneumatic structures are safer
not more than 80-100mm and not less than
than any other structure. Otherwise, a proper
60mm. • Man can withstand pressures
care should be taken while establishing. •
between 0.20 atm to 3 atm. Therefore no
They are fire resistance structures.
health hazard is presented by continuous stay
• QUICK ERECTION & DISMANTLING - in a pneumatic structure.
Suitable for temporary constructions. • 1 km²
PARTS OF A PNEUMATIC STRUCTURES
• The main systems of a Pneumatic Structure are the envelope, cables, air blower, doors,
and foundation. Each system works off of each other since the whole structure would
collapse without the envelope, cables, and blower. The building would not have access
through the membrane with doors.
TYPES OF PNEUMATIC STRUCTURES
AIR SUPPORTED STRUCTURES
It consist of a single membrane (enclosing a functionally useful
space) which is supported by a small internal pressure difference.
The internal volume of a building air is consequently at a pressure
higher than atmospheric
• They have air higher than the atmospheric pressure
supporting the envelope.
• Air locks or revolving doors help to maintain the internal
pressure.
• Air must be constantly provided.
• Life span of 20 – 25 years.
• Relatively low cost.
• They are either anchored to the ground or to a wall so that
leakage is prevented.
• They have relative low cost and they can be installed easily.
TYPES OF PNEUMATIC STRUCTURES
AIR INFLATED STRUCTURES
It is supported by pressurized air contained within inflated
building element. The pressurized air in the pillow serves
only to stabilizing the load carrying membrane. The
covered space is not pressurized.
• Supporting frames consist of air under high pressure.
• Internal pressure of building remains at atmospheric
pressure.
• There is no restrictions in number and size of
openings.
• It has the ability to support itself.
• They have potential to support an attached structure.
TYPES OF PNEUMATIC STRUCTURES
INFLATED RIBBED STRUCTURES
• High pressure tube frames 
• Freedom of structural form
• Membrane independent of the rib structure
• Ability to change easily, allowing greater control of
heat, light and sound
• Difficult to add to pressure tube structure; not easily
extensible
• Initial air input is very small, inflation instant Self-
deployment; pop-up package
ENVELOPE MATERIALS
FIBERGLASS
• They high tensile strength, elastic behavior and durability.
• Coated with Teflon or silicone to increase resistance to extreme temperatures
and UV radiation.
POLYESTER
• Most common envelope material for smaller structures.
• PVC-coated polyester is common for flexible, smaller air-supported structures.
• The PVC is applied to the polyester using a bonding or adhesive agent.
ETFE (ETHYLENE TETRAFLUOROETHYLENE)
• It is very energy efficient because of transparency, insulation and UV
resistance.
• It is also light weight has an lifespan on 20 years and is recyclable.
NYLON
• Vinyl-coated nylon has more strength, durability and stretch than polyester.
• They have a higher cost.
ANCHOR MATERIALS
STEEL CABLES
• Steel wires are twisted into strands which are then
twisted around a core to form the cable.
BALLASTS
• Materials for ballasts of smaller structures include
sand bags, concrete blocks or bricks.
• The ballasts must be placed around the perimeter of
the structure to evenly distribute the load.
ADVANTAGES
• Light weight
• Covers large spans without internal supports
• Rapid assembly and have low initial and operating cost
• Portability

• As they have very little weight they therefore are of greater practical importance than other
structures withstanding compression loads

• Rapid deployment and erection

• Possibility of acting as sophisticated mechanisms for controlling heat, light and sound, rather
than a basic enclosure

• Radical new forms are possible to be generated

DISADVANTAGES
• Need for continuous maintenance of excess pressure in the envelope
• Relatively short service life
• Continuous operation of fans to maintain pressure
• Cannot reach the insulation values of hard-walled structures
• Often incompatible to the practical problems of relating the structure to a particular site
• Once erected, structure is inflexible in terms of physical response
• Limited expansion by addition
• Difficulty of placement of openings
• Risk of failure in event of membrane rupture
• In some cases requirement of air locks and continual air supply
BIBLIOGRAPHY
• https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2008/bridges2008-47.pdf
• https://www.britannica.com/technology/pneumatic-structure
• Wikipedia
• Google