COLLEGE PHYSICS

BIOLOGY 2E
Chapter
Chapter 34 ANIMAL # Chapter
NUTRITION ANDTitle
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
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INTRODUCTION

▪ All living organisms need nutrients to survive.

▪ Most animals obtain their nutrients through
consuming other organisms.
▪ Biological molecules necessary for animal cell
function…
o Amino acids
o Lipid molecules
o Nucleotides
o Simple sugars
▪ Animal food will contain…
o Proteins
o Fats
o Complex carbohydrates
▪ Animals must convert macromolecules found in food
into the simple molecules required for cell functioning.
▪ Digestion = food particles are broken down
▪ Absorption = components of digestion are taken into
the blood stream or lymph
▪ Animals must balance food intake, storage, and energy
expenditure.
Figure 34.1 For humans, fruits and vegetables are important in maintaining a balanced diet. (credit: modification of work by
Julie Rybarczyk)
34.1: DIGESTIVE SYSTEMS

∙ Animals must obtain nutrients from eating plants

(herbivores), meat (carnivores), or both
(omnivores).
∙ The nutrients and molecules present in food must
be processed before they are accessible to cells.
∙ Animal digestive systems have evolved to
accommodate their various dietary needs.
HERBIVORES, OMNIVORES, AND CARNIVORES

oHerbivores
▪ Primary food source is plant-based.
▪ Have evolved digestive systems capable of
handling large amounts of plant material.
▪ Categories…
∙ frugivores = fruit-eaters
∙ granivores = seed-eaters
∙ nectivores = nectar-feeders
∙ folivores = leaf-feeders
Figure 34.2 Herbivores, like this (a) mule deer and (b) monarch caterpillar, eat primarily plant material. (credit a: modification of
work by Bill Ebbesen; credit b: modification of work by Doug Bowman)
oCarnivores
▪ Primary food source are animals.
▪ Obligate carnivores = rely entirely on animal flesh
(lions)
▪ Facultative carnivores = also eat non-animal food
(dogs)
oOmnivores
▪ Eat both plant- and animal-derived food.
Figure 34.3 Carnivores like the (a) lion eat primarily meat. The (b) ladybug is also a
carnivore that consumes small insects called aphids. (credit a: modification of work by
Kevin Pluck; credit b: modification of work by Jon Sullivan)
Figure 34.4 Omnivores like the (a) bear and (b) crayfish eat both plant and animal
based food. (credit a: modification of work by Dave Menke; credit b: modification of
work by Jon Sullivan)
INVERTEBRATE DIGESTIVE SYSTEMS

oSimplest example of an evolved digestive system is

the gastrovascular cavity.
▪ Only has one opening for digestion.
▪ Blind tube or cavity.
▪ “Mouth” and “anus” are the same opening.
▪ Cells within the cavity secrete digestive enzymes.
▪ Food particles are engulfed by cells lining the
cavity.
▪ Examples: jellyfish and sea anemones
oThe alimentary canal is more advanced with a
separate mouth and anus.
▪ Consists of a single tube.
▪ Food passes through mouth and is stored in the
crop.
▪ Food then passes to the gizzard where it is
churned and digested.
▪ Food particles then pass through the intestine
where absorption occurs.
▪ Feces (castings) are eliminated through the anus.
▪ Examples: tapeworms and earthworms
INCOMPLETE VERSUS COMPLETE DIGESTIVE
TRACTS

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VERTEBRATE DIGESTIVE SYSTEMS

▪ Have evolved more complex digestive systems to

adapt to their dietary needs.
MONOGASTRIC: SINGLE-CHAMBERED
STOMACH

▪Process of digestion begins with the mouth.

∙ Teeth play an important role in physically breaking
down food (mastication).
∙ Enzymes in saliva begin to chemically breakdown food.
▪The esophagus transports food to the stomach via
peristalsis.
∙ Peristalsis occurs in other GI tract organs as well.
▪Digestion is continued in the stomach.
∙ Extreme acidity (pH 1.5 to 2.5) increase the rate of
breakdown.
∙ Gastric juices contribute to breakdown.
▪Further breakdown takes place in the small intestine.
∙ Enzymes produced by the liver, pancreas, and
small intestine contribute to breakdown.
∙ Most absorption occurs in the small intestine.
▪Waste material travels through the large intestine
and is stored until it is excreted out the rectum.
∙ Some water is absorbed in the large intestine.
∙ Compacts and dries waste into feces.
VERTEBRATE DIGESTIVE SYSTEMS

Monogastric Digestive Systems

Humans and herbivores, such as the rabbit
Note: rabbits digest their food twice: 1) Food passes through the digestive
system, collects in the cecum, and then it passes as soft feces called
cecotrophes. 2) The rabbit re-ingests these cecotrophes to further digest them.
AVIAN

▪Birds do not have teeth so their digestive system

must be able to handle un-masticated food.
▪Beak type fits their diet.
▪Metabolic rates are high to quickly process food and
keep weight down.
▪Stomach has two chambers…
∙ Proventriculus = where gastric juices are produced
∙ Gizzard = where food is stored, soaked, and
mechanically ground
▪Undigested material forms pellets.
▪Most chemical digestion and absorption happens
within the intestine.
▪Waste is excreted through the cloaca.
AVIAN ADAPTATIONS

▪Birds have evolved highly efficient, simplified

digestive systems.
▪The horny beak, lack of jaws, and smaller tongues can
be traced back to their dinosaur ancestors.
 VERTEBRATE DIGESTIVE SYSTEMS

Ruminants
Birds Four stomachs:
• A crop, stores food • the rumen and the reticulum – contain
• Two stomachs: the prokaryotes and protists to digest cellulose fiber.
proventriculus (enzymes) • Cud is regurgitated chewed and swallowed in
and the gizzard (grinding). third stomach, the omasum – removes water.
• One openings to excrete urine • Cud then passes onto the abomasum –
and feces = the cloaca enzymes produced by animal
RUMINANTS

▪Mainly herbivores like cows and goats.

▪Diets include large amounts of roughage (fiber).
▪Digestive systems have evolved to handle large
amounts of cellulose.
▪Do not have upper incisor teeth.
▪Use lower teeth, tongue, and lips to tear and chew
food.
▪Stomach is a multi-chambered organ with four
compartments…
∙ Rumen
∙ Reticulum
∙ Omasum
∙ Abomasum (true stomach)
▪Chambers contain many microbes that breakdown
cellulose and ferment food.
∙ Space is needed to house enough bacteria to
breakdown roughage.
∙ Fermentation produces a lot of gas, such as methane.
▪Small intestine plays and important role in
absorption.
▪Large intestine helps with the elimination of waste.
 VERTEBRATE DIGESTIVE SYSTEMS

Ruminants
Birds Four stomachs:
• A crop, stores food • the rumen and the reticulum – contain
• Two stomachs: the prokaryotes and protists to digest cellulose fiber.
proventriculus (enzymes) • Cud is regurgitated chewed and swallowed in
and the gizzard (grinding). third stomach, the omasum – removes water.
• One openings to excrete urine • Cud then passes onto the abomasum –
and feces = the cloaca enzymes produced by animal
PSEUDO-RUMINANTS

▪Includes camels and alpacas.

▪Have a three-chambered stomach.
∙ Omasum
∙ Abomasum
∙ Reticulum
▪Cecum is large and contains many microorganisms
that can breakdown and ferment roughage.
PARTS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

• Humans digestive tract is complete (alimentary canal)

• Part of a tube-within-a-tube body plan
• Begins with a mouth and ends in an anus
• Digestion entirely extracellular
• Digestive enzymes are secreted by
• The wall of the digestive tract, or
• By nearby glands
HUMAN DIGESTIVE TRACT

Accessory organs Digestive tract organs

Mouth
Salivary glands
teeth chew food; tongue tastes and
secrete saliva: contains digestive enzyme
pushes food for chewing and swallowing
for carbohydrates

Pharynx
passageway where food is swallowed

Esophagus
passageway where peristalsis pushes
food to stomach

Liver
major metabolic organ: Stomach
processes and stores nutrients; secretes acid and digestive enzyme
produces bile for emulsification of fats for protein; churns, mixing food with
secretions, and sends chyme to
Gallbladder small intestine
stores bile from liver; sends it to
the small intestine
Small intestine
Pancreas mixes chyme with digestive enzymes
produces pancreatic juice: contains digestive for final breakdown; absorbs nutrient
enzymes, and sends it to the small intestine; molecules into body; secretes
produces insulin and secretes it into the digestive hormones into blood
blood after eating
Large intestine
absorbs water and salt to form feces

Rectum
stores and regulates elimination
of feces
Anus
ORAL CAVITY

▪Point of entry for food.

▪Mastication breaks food down into smaller particles.
▪All mammals have teeth for chewing.
▪Saliva begins the digestion process.
∙ Produced by salivary glands (parotid,
submandibular, sublingual).
∙ Watery substance that contains mucous,
immunoglobins, lysozymes, and salivary amylase
(breaks down carbohydrates).
 reduced canines

• Dentition differs with mode of

nutrition
large, flat molars and premolars sharp incisors

• Omnivores
a. Horses are herbivores.

• Variety of specializations
• Accommodate both vegetation Lion
pointed incisors

and meat jagged molars

enlarged canines
and premolars

• Herbivores
similarly shaped conical teeth
• Incisors for clipping
• Premolars and molars for
Dolphin
grinding b. Lions and dolphins are carnivores.

• Carnivores
• Pointed incisors and enlarged chisel-shaped

canines
incisors
pointed canines

• Shear off pieces small enough to flat molars

fairly flat
premolars

swallow c. Humans are omnivores.

▪Lipase is produced by cells in the tongue and begins
the breakdown of triglycerides.
▪Bolus = wettened mass of food produced in the
mouth
▪Tongue aids in swallowing, which moves the bolus to
the pharynx.
▪Soft palate closes off nasopharynx.
▪In the trachea the epiglottis directs food into the
esophagus.
SWALLOWING

soft palate

nasopharynx
hard palate

uvula

bolus

epiglottis
covering
glottis

glottis

trachea
esophagus
ESOPHAGUS

▪Tubular organ that connects the mouth to the

stomach.
▪Smooth muscles create a wavelike motion called
peristalsis.
∙ Involuntary response to swallowing.
∙ Unidirectional motion that moves bolus to
stomach.
 esophagus
• Esophagus
• Takes food to stomach by
peristalsis
• Peristalsis - Rhythmical bolus
contraction to move
contents in tubular organs

Peristalsis in the Digestive Tract

▪Gastro-esophageal sphincter provides entry into the
stomach.
∙ Circular smooth muscles that relax in response to
swallowing and pressure.
∙ Not a true sphincter in humans. (Esophagus
remains closed when there is no swallowing.)
∙ Acid reflux occurs when stomach acids escape
into the esophagus.
STOMACH

▪Saclike organ that secretes gastric digestive juices.

▪Highly acidic for the chemical breakdown of food and
extraction of nutrients.
▪Can expand up to 20 times its resting size due to folds
within (rugae).
▪A major site for protein digestion (except in
ruminants).
∙ Chief cells secrete pepsinogen, which changes into
pepsin within the stomach acid.
∙ Parietal cells secrete hydrogen and chloride,
which becomes hydrochloric acid.
▪High acidity kills many microorganisms.
▪Chemical digestion is facilitated by churning action.
▪Chyme = mixture of partially digested food and gastric
juices
▪Pyloric sphincter allows small amount of chyme to
enter small intestine.
∙ Gastric emptying takes about two to six hours.
▪Stomach is protected from extreme acidity by…
∙ Thick lining of mucous containing bicarbonate.
∙ Chief cells secrete inactive form of pepsin
(pepsinogen).
 esophagus

• Stomach
• Stomach wall has deep folds muscles of the
stomach wall

• Folds disappear as the

stomach fills to an duodenum of

approximate volume of one gastric pit small intestine a.

liter
• Epithelial lining of the
cells that
stomach has millions of secrete mucus

gastric pits, which drain gastric gland

cells that
gastric glands secrete HCl
and enzymes

• Pepsin is a hydrolytic enzyme

that acts on protein to produce
peptides

20 μm
b.
SMALL INTESTINE

▪Digestion of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats is

competed.
▪Has enormous surface area because…
∙ Long tube with many folds.
∙ Villi = fingerlike projections on internal surface
∙ Microvilli = fingerlike projections on apical surface
of villi
▪Villi are lined with epithelial cells that allow for the
absorption of simple food molecules.
▪Regions include the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.
Figure 34.12 Villi are folds on the small intestine lining that increase the surface area to facilitate the absorption of nutrients.
HUMAN DIGESTIVE TRACT

Accessory organs Digestive tract organs

Mouth
Salivary glands
teeth chew food; tongue tastes and
secrete saliva: contains digestive enzyme
pushes food for chewing and swallowing
for carbohydrates

Pharynx
passageway where food is swallowed

Esophagus
passageway where peristalsis pushes
food to stomach

Liver
major metabolic organ: Stomach
processes and stores nutrients; secretes acid and digestive enzyme
produces bile for emulsification of fats for protein; churns, mixing food with
secretions, and sends chyme to
Gallbladder small intestine
stores bile from liver; sends it to
the small intestine
Small intestine
Pancreas mixes chyme with digestive enzymes
produces pancreatic juice: contains digestive for final breakdown; absorbs nutrient
enzymes, and sends it to the small intestine; molecules into body; secretes
produces insulin and secretes it into the digestive hormones into blood
blood after eating
Large intestine
absorbs water and salt to form feces

Rectum
stores and regulates elimination
of feces
Anus
DUODENUM

oChyme mixes with bile, pancreatic juices, and intestinal

juices.
▪ Bile (Liver)
∙ Emulsifies lipids.
▪ Pancreatic juices (Pancreas)
∙ Contains variety of digestive enzymes.
▪ Intestinal juices (Small Intestine)
∙ Adds alkalinity (bicarbonate).
∙ Contains variety of digestive enzymes.
o Absorption of fatty acids occur here.
LIVER, GALLBLADDER, AND PANCREAS

bile

common hepatic duct

pancreas
pancreatic duct

pancreatic
juice
gallbladder

common bile duct

duodenum

a.

branch of
bile canals
hepatic
artery

central
vein

branch of
hepatic
bile duct
portal vein

b.
JEJUNUM

oHydrolysis of nutrients continues.

oMost absorption of carbohydrates and amino acids.
oBulk of chemical digestion and absorption.
ILEUM

oBile salts and vitamins are absorbed.

oUndigested foodstuff passes through the ileocecal
valve into the large intestine.
LARGE INTESTINE

▪Reabsorbs water and processes waste material.

▪Smaller in length but larger in diameter.
▪Regions include the cecum, colon, and rectum.
CECUM

oInitial segment.
oReceiving pouch for waste matter.
oSite of attachment for appendix.
 About 1/3 of the fecal
matter is bacteria
(live or dead)

large
intestine

small
intestine

cecu
m

Vermiform
appendix
COLON

oHouses many bacteria (intestinal flora) that aid in

further digestion.
oRegions include the ascending, transverse,
descending, and sigmoid colon.
oMain function is to extract water and mineral salts.
oCarnivores have a shorter colon than herbivores.
RECTUM AND COLON

▪Terminal end of large intestine.

▪Rectum = store feces until defecation
▪Anus = exit point for feces
∙ Has inner involuntary and outer voluntary
sphincters.
▪Feces is propelled via peristaltic movements.
ACCESSORY ORGANS

▪Salivary glands
∙ Produce saliva.
▪Liver
∙ Produce bile.
∙ Absorbed nutrients from small intestine are
processed.
∙ Delivered via the hepatic portal vein.
∙ Important in detoxification.
 Pancreatic cancer is the 4th
leading cause of cancer-related
death in the US. It has the highest
mortality rate of all major cancers.
94% of pancreatic cancer patients
will die within 5 years of diagnosis
• Pancreas
• Exocrine gland.
• Assists in reducing the acidity of chyme.
• Produces pancreatic juice and digestive
enzymes.
• Pancreatic amylase digests starch to
maltose.
• Trypsin digests protein to peptides.
• Lipase digests fat droplets to glycerol
and fatty acids.
LIVER, GALLBLADDER, AND PANCREAS

bile

common hepatic duct

pancreas
pancreatic duct

pancreatic
juice
gallbladder

common bile duct

duodenum

a.

branch of
bile canals
hepatic
artery

central
vein

branch of
hepatic
bile duct
portal vein

b.
34.2: NUTRITION AND ENERGY PRODUCTION

∙ Animal diets vary substantially.

∙ Diet is source of materials for building complex
molecules needed for growth, maintenance, and
reproduction (biosynthesis).
∙ Diet is also source for ATP production (cell energy).
FOOD REQUIREMENTS

oDiet should be well balanced.

▪ Contain all necessary nutrients, vitamins, and
minerals.
NUTRITION
ORGANIC PRECURSORS

▪Carbohydrates
∙ Primary source of energy and organic carbon.
∙ Carbohydrates in food are ultimately broken down
into glucose.
∙ Humans do not produce cellulase.
o Cannot break down cellulose from plant
matter.
o Provides fiber instead.
o Excess sugars are stored as glycogen or
converted into fats.
• Carbohydrates are present in food in the form of sugars, starch,
and fiber.
• Fruits, vegetables, milk, and honey are natural sources of sugars.
• Monosaccharides:
• Glucose
• Fructose
• Disaccharides:
• Lactose (milk sugar)
• Sucrose (table sugar)
• After being absorbed from the digestive tract all sugars are
converted to glucose.
• Glucose is the preferred direct energy source in cells.
• Plants store glucose as starch.
• Animals store glucose as glycogen.
FIBER

• Includes various undigestible carbohydrates derived from plants.

• Food sources rich in fiber include beans, peas, nuts, fruits, and
vegetables.
• Technically, fiber is not a nutrient for humans.
• Cannot be digested.
• Soluble fiber combines with bile acids and cholesterol in the small
intestine and prevents them from being absorbed.
▪Nitrogen
∙ Protein catabolism provides a source of organic
nitrogen.
∙ Protein breakdown provides amino acids.
∙ Carbon and nitrogen become building blocks for
nucleotides, nucleic acids, proteins, cells, and
tissues.
∙ Excess nitrogen must be excreted.
PROTEINS

• Adequate protein formation

requires
20 different types of amino acids
• Adults require 8 from the diet,
children require 9
• = Essential amino acids
• Some foods, such as meat, milk,
and eggs, provide all 20 (complete)
• Vegetables supply one or more
essential amino acids, but are
deficient in at least one
• Vegetarians should combine plant
products to provide all the essential
amino acids
Kids also need Arginine
▪Fats/Lipids
∙ Add flavor and a sense of satiety (fullness).
∙ Significant source of energy.
∙ Aid in digestion of fat-soluble vitamins and
production of fat-soluble hormones.
LIPIDS
• Fat, oils, and cholesterol.
• Essential for the storage and activity of
fat-soluble vitamins A, D, and E.
• Provide energy at nine calories per gram.
• Fat storage is essential to protect your
internal organs and to help insulate
against cold temperatures.
• Saturated fats (solids at room
temperature) usually come from animals.
• Butter and meats, such as marbled red
meats and bacon, contain saturated fats.
• Palm oil and coconut oil are high in
saturated fats.

http://www.nature.com/nature/supplements/insights/lipids/index.html
ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS

• Must be eaten because the body cannot produce

them.
• Omega-3 alpha linolenic acid and omega-6 linoleic
acid are essential fatty acids needed to make some
membrane phospholipids.
• Some amino acids must come from food.
• Human body can only synthesize 11 of the 20
required amino acids.
VITAMINS
• Required in small quantities for some enzymes to
function (coenzymes).
• Water or fat soluble.
• Some vitamin deficiencies can have a dramatic
effect on health.
• Antioxidants
• Cellular metabolism generates free radicals that
carry extra electron.
• Vitamins C, E, and A are believed to defend the
body against free radicals.
NUTRITION: VITAMINS
NUTRITION: MINERALS

Inorganic essential nutrients that must be obtained from food. They

help in structure and regulation and are considered co-factors.
FOOD ENERGY AND ATP

oFood is needed to obtain energy and maintain

homeostasis.
oCarbohydrates (mainly glucose) is the primary source
of energy.
oAdenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the primary energy
source for cells.
ATP

▪Energy stored in phosphodiester bonds.

▪ADP is converted into ATP via cellular respiration.
▪Energy is released when phosphodiester bonds are
broken (ATP to ADP).
▪Required for all cellular functions.
▪Excess ATP is used in the production of glycogen.
∙ Glycogen is stored in the liver and skeletal
muscles.
∙ Storage of excess energy is a vital evolutionary
development in helping animals deal with
mobility, food shortages, and famine.
OBESITY

oMajor health concern in the United States.

oMay lead to other health issues such as type-2
diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and certain cancers
(colon and breast).
oCalories per gram…
▪ Carbohydrates = 4
▪ Proteins = 4
▪ Fats = 9
oAnimals tend to seek lipid-rich foods for their higher
energy content.
oSignals for hunger and satiety are controlled in the
hypothalamus.
▪ Foods that are rich in fatty acids tend to promote
satiety.
oExcess glucose in the body can result in excess
pyruvate production.
oExcess pyruvate can be converted into fatty acids
that are stored in adipose tissue.
oSome animals benefit from obesity, such as polar
bears and seals.
DIET AND OBESITY

• Too many calories from

any source contributes to
body fat.
• Increases risk of obesity
and associated illnesses
34.3: DIGESTIVE SYSTEM PROCESSES

• Obtaining nutrition and energy from food is a

multistep process.
• Ingestion and propulsion.
• Digestion
• Absorption
• Elimination
STEPS OF DIGESTION
INGESTION

oTaking in food through the mouth.

oTeeth, saliva, and tongue play an important role in
vertebrates.
oFood is modified into a soft mass that can be
swallowed.
MECHANICAL AND CHEMICAL DIGESTION OF
FOOD: FROM MOUTH TO RECTUM
DIGESTION

▪Food must be broken down into smaller particles to allow

for absorption.
▪Carbohydrates
∙ Digestion begins in mouth with salivary amylase.
o Breaks down starches.
∙ Acidic environment in stomach stops that action of
amylase.
∙ Digestion is continued in the duodenum.
o Pancreatic amylase breaks down starch and
glycogen.
o Brush border enzymes (maltase, sucrase, and
lactase) break down disaccharides into
monosaccharides.
• Absorption occurs across the intestinal epithelium.
CARBOHYDRATE DIGESTION

• Digestion of carbohydrates is performed by several

enzymes.
• Starch and glycogen are broken down into glucose by
amylase and maltase.
• Sucrose (table sugar) and lactose (milk sugar) are broken
down by sucrase and lactase, respectively.
▪Protein
∙ Large amount of digestion occurs in the stomach.
o Pepsin breaks down proteins into peptides (four
to nine amino acids).
∙ Digestion is continued in the duodenum.
o Trypsin, elastase, and chymotrypsin reduce
peptides into smaller peptides.
o Peptidases (carboxypeptidase, dipeptidase, and
aminopeptidase) reduce peptides to free amino
acids.
∙ Absorption occurs across the intestinal epithelium.
Figure 34.17 Protein digestion is a multistep process that begins in the stomach and continues through the intestines.
▪Lipids
∙ Digestion begins in the stomach with lingual lipase
and gastric lipase.
∙ Bulk of digestion occurs in the small intestine.
o Entrance of chyme triggers hormonal response to
release bile.
▪ Aids in the digestion of triglycerides.
▪ Emulsifies large lipids globules into several
small lipid globules.
o Pancreatic lipase breaks down lipids into fatty
acids and glycerides.
▪Lipids (cont.)
∙ Absorption sends chylomicrons into lymphatic
vessels that enter the bloodstream via the subclavian
vein.
o Bile salts surround long-chain fatty acids and
monoglycerides forming micelles.
o Micelles move into the brush border of the small
intestine absorptive cells.
o Fatty acids and monoglycerides enter the
absorptive cells and form triglycerides.
o Triglycerides aggregate and become coated with
proteins to become chylomicrons.
o Chylomicrons leave the absorptive cells via
exocytosis.
Figure 34.18 Lipids are digested and absorbed in the small intestine.
▪Vitamins
∙ Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed in the same
manner as lipids.
∙ Water-soluble vitamins can be directly absorbed into
the bloodstream form the intestine.
ABSORPTION

• Mucous membrane of small intestine

• Has ridges and furrows that give it a corrugated
surface
• Villi are ridges on the surface, which contain even
smaller ridges, microvilli
• Greatly increase absorptive area
• Each villus contains blood capillaries and a
lymphatic capillary (lacteal)
ELIMINATION

oFinal step in digestion.

oRemoves undigested food material.
oWater is reabsorbed in the colon.
oIntestinal flora can perform some further digestion.
oSemi-solid waste is moved via peristalsis.
oAs rectum expands in response to storage it triggers
the neural signals required to set up the urge to
eliminate.
oFeces is eliminated out the anus.
oCommon Problems with Elimination
▪ Constipation = hardened feces due to excess
water removal in colon
▪ Diarrhea = insufficient removal of water in colon
▪ Emesis (vomiting) = elimination of food via
forceful expulsion through the mouth
34.4: DIGESTIVE SYSTEM REGULATION

∙ The digestive system is regulated through neural

and hormonal responses.
Figure 34.20 Seeing a plate of food triggers the secretion of saliva in the mouth and the production of HCL in the stomach.
(credit: Kelly Bailey)
NEURAL RESPONSES TO FOOD

oInitial responses to the smell, sight, or thought of

food…
▪ Increased salivation (autonomic nervous system).
▪ Increased production of hydrochloric acid in the
stomach.
▪ Brain prepares smooth muscle involved in
peristalsis.
▪ When the stomach is full the brain detects satiety
and signals fullness.
oDigestive Phases
▪ Cephalic phase
∙ Neural response to the stimulus provided by food.
▪ Gastric phase
∙ Begins when the food arrives in the stomach.
∙ Stimulated by…
o Distension of stomach.
o Decrease in the pH of gastric contents.
o Presence of undigested material.
o Consists of local, hormonal, and neural
responses.
oDigestive Phases (cont.)
▪ Intestinal phase
∙ Begins when chyme enters the small intestine
triggering digestive secretions.
∙ Controls the rate of gastric emptying.
∙ Involves hormonal and neural events that
coordinate the activities of the intestinal tract,
pancreas, liver, and gallbladder.
oThe endocrine system controls the response of
various glands and the release of hormones at the
appropriate time.
oHormonal control of the stomach acid environment.
▪ Gastrin is secreted by G cells during the gastric
phase.
∙ Stimulates the release of hydrochloric acid.
▪ When the stomach is emptied somatostatin stops
the release of hydrochloric acid.
oHormonal control in the duodenum.
▪ Secretin stimulates the pancreas to produce an
alkaline bicarbonate solution.
▪ Cholecystokinin (CKK) stimulates the pancreas to
produce pancreatic juices and the gallbladder to
release bile.
oGastric inhibitory peptide is secreted by the small
intestine in response to fatty foods.
▪ Slows down peristaltic movements.