Module 3 : Memory

In this Module, we have four lectures, viz.

1. Concept of Memory.
2. Cache Memory.
3. Memory Management
4. Virtual memory
Click the proper link on the left side for the
lectures.
We have already mentioned that digital computer works on stored programmed concept introduced by
Von
Neumann. We use memory to store the information, which includes both program and data.
Due to several reasons, we have different kind of memories. We use different kind of memory at
different lavel.
The memory of computer is broadly categories into two categories:
m Internal and
m external
Internal memory is used by CPU to perform task and external memory is used to store bulk information,
which
includes large software and data.
Memory is used to store the information in digital form. The memory hierarchy is given by:
m Register
m Cache Memory
m Main Memory
m Magnetic Disk
m Removable media (Magnetic tape)
 Register:

This is a part of Central Processor Unit, so they

reside inside the CPU. The information from
main memory is brought
to CPU and keep the information in register. Due
to space and cost constraints, we have got a
limited number of
registers in a CPU. These are basically faster
devices.
 Cache Memory:

Cache memory is a storage device placed in between CPU and

main memory. These are semiconductor memories.
These are basically fast memory device, faster than main
memory.
We can not have a big volume of cache memory due to its higher
cost and some constraints of the CPU. Due to
higher cost we can not replace the whole main memory by faster
memory. Generally, the most recently used
information is kept in the cache memory. It is brought from the
main memory and placed in the cache memory. Now a
days, we get CPU with internal cache.
 Main Memory:

Like cache memory, main memory is also

semiconductor memory. But the main
memory is relatively slower memory.
We have to first bring the information (whether
it is data or program), to main memory. CPU
can work with the
information available in main memory only.
 Magnetic Disk:

This is bulk storage device. We have to deal with huge

amount of data in many application. But we don't have
so
much semiconductor memory to keep these information
in our computer. On the other hand, semiconductor
memories are volatile in nature. It loses its content once
we switch off the computer. For permanent storage,
we use
magnetic disk. The storage capacity of magnetic disk is
very high.
 Removable media:

For different application, we use different data.

It may not be possible to keep all the
information in magnetic disk. So,
which ever data we are not using currently, can
be kept in removable media. Magnetic tape is
one kind of removable
medium. CD is also a removable media, which is
an optical device.
Register, cache memory and main memory are internal memory. Magnetic Disk, removable media are
external
memory. Internal memories are semiconductor memory. Semiconductor memories are categoried as
volatile memory
and non-volatile memory.
RAM: Random Access Memories are volatile in nature. As soon as the computer is switched off, the
contents of memory are also lost.
ROM: Read only memories are non volatile in nature. The storage is permanent, but it is read only
memory. We can not store new information in ROM.
Several types of ROM are available:
l PROM: Programmable Read Only Memory; it can be programmed once as per user requirements.
l EPROM: Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory; the contents of the memory can be erased and
store
new data into the memory. In this case, we have to erase whole information.
l EEPROM: Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory; in this type of memory the contents
of a
particular location can be changed without effecting the contents of other location.
 Main Memory

The main memory of a computer is semiconductor memory. The main memory unit of computer is
basically consists
of two kinds of memory:
RAM : Random access memory; which is volatile in nature.
ROM: Read only memory; which is non-volatile.
The permanent information are kept in ROM and the user space is basically in RAM.
The smallest unit of information is known as bit (binary digit), and in one memory cell we can store
one bit of
information. 8 bit together is termed as a byte.
The maximum size of main memory that can be used in any computer is determined by the
addressing scheme.
A computer that generates 16-bit address is capable of addressing upto 216 which is equal to 64K
memory location.
Similarly, for 32 bit addresses, the total capacity will be 232 which is equal to 4G memory location.
In some computer, the smallest addressable unit of information is a memory word and the
machine is called wordaddressable.
In some computer, individual address is assigned for
each byte of information, and it is called byte-addressable
computer. In this computer, one memory word contains
one or more memory bytes which can be addressed
individually.
A byte addressable 32-bit computer, each memory word
contains 4 bytes. A possible way of address assignment
is shown in figure. The address of a word is always
integer multiple of 4.
The main memory is usually designed to store and
retrieve data in word length quantities. The word length of
a computer is generally defined by the number of bits
actually stored or retrieved in one main memory access.
Consider a machine with 32 bit address bus. If the word
size is 32 bit, then the high order 30 bit will specify the
address of a word. If we want to access any byte of the
word, then it can be specified by the lower two bit of the
address bus.
The data transfer between main memory and the CPU takes place through two CPU
registers.
m MAR : Memory Address Register
m MDR : Memory Data Register.
If the MAR is k-bit long, then the total addressable memory location will be 2k.
If the MDR is n-bit long, then the n bit of data is transferred in one memory cycle.
The transfer of data takes place through memory bus, which consist of address bus
and data bus. In the above
example, size of data bus is n-bit and size of address bus is k bit.
It also includes control lines like Read, Write and Memory Function Complete (MFC)
for coordinating data transfer. In
the case of byte addressable computer, another control line to be added to indicate
the byte transfer instead of the
whole word.
For memory operation, the CPU initiates a memory operation by loading the appropriate data i.e., address to
MAR.
If it is a memory read operation, then it sets the read memory control line to 1. Then the contents of the
memory
location is brought to MDR and the memory control circuitry indicates this to the CPU by setting MFC to 1.
If the operation is a memory write operation, then the CPU places the data into MDR and sets the write
memory
control line to 1. Once the contents of MDR are stored in specified memory location, then the memory control
circuitry
indicates the end of operation by setting MFC to 1.
A useful measure of the speed of memory unit is the time that elapses between the initiation of an operation
and the
completion of the operation (for example, the time between Read and MFC). This is referred to as Memory
Access
Time. Another measure is memory cycle time. This is the minimum time delay between the initiation two
independent
memory operations (for example, two successive memory read operation). Memory cycle time is slightly larger
than
memory access time.
 Binary Storage Cell:

The binary storage cell is the basic building block

of a memory unit.
The binary storage cell that stores one bit of
information can be modelled by an SR latch
with associated gates. This
model of binary storage cell is shown in the
figure.
 1 bit Binary Cell (BC)

The binary cell sotres one bit of information in

its internal latch.
Control input to binary cell
• Select Read/Write Memory Operation
• 0 X None
• 1 0 Write
• 1 1 Read
The storage part is modelled here with SR-latch, but in reality it
is an electronics circuit made up of transistors.
The memory consttucted with the help of transistors is known as
semiconductor memory. The semiconductor
memories are termed as Random Access Memory(RAM),
because it is possible to access any memory location in
random.
Depending on the technology used to construct a RAM, there
are two types of RAM -
SRAM: Static Random Access Memory.
DRAM: Dynamic Random Access Memory.
 Dynamic Ram (DRAM):

A DRAM is made with cells that store data as charge on

capacitors. The presence or absence of charge in a
capacitor is interpreted as binary 1 or 0.
Because capacitors have a natural tendency to discharge due
to leakage current, dynamic RAM require periodic
charge refreshing to maintain data storage. The term dynamic
refers to this tendency of the stored charge to leak
away, even with power continuously applied.
A typical DRAM structure for an individual cell that stores one
bit information is shown in the figure.
For the write operation, a voltage signal is applied to the
bit line B, a high voltage represents 1 and a low voltage
represents 0. A signal is then applied to the address line,
which will turn on the transistor T, allowing a charge to
be
transferred to the capacitor.
For the read operation, when a signal is applied to the
address line, the transistor T turns on and the charge
stored
on the capacitor is fed out onto the bit line B.
 Static RAM (SRAM):

In an SRAM, binary values are stored using

traditional flip-flop constructed with the help
of transistors. A static RAM
will hold its data as long as power is supplied to
it.
A typical SRAM constructed with transistors is
shown in the figure. Page 104 diagram module
3
• Four transistors (T1, T2, T3, T4) are cross connected in an arrangement that produces a stable logic
state.
• In logic state 1, point A1 is high and point A2 is low; in this state T1 and T4 are off, and T2 and T3 are
on .
• In logic state 0, point A1 is low and point A2 is high; in this state T1 and T4 are on, and T2 and T3 are off
.
• Both states are stable as long as the dc supply voltage is applied.
• The address line is used to open or close a switch which is nothing but another transistor. The address
line controls
• two transistors(T5 and T6).
• When a signal is applied to this line, the two transistors are switched on, allowing a read or write
operation.
• For a write operation, the desired bit value is applied to line B, and its complement is applied to line .
This forces
• the four transistors(T1, T2, T3, T4) into the proper state.
• For a read operation, the bit value is read from the line B. When a signal is applied to the address line,
the signal of
• point A1 is available in the bit line B.
 SRAM Versus DRAM :

n Both static and dynamic RAMs are volatile, that is, it will retain the
information as long as power supply is
applied.
n A dynamic memory cell is simpler and smaller than a static memory cell.
Thus a DRAM is more dense,
i.e., packing density is high(more cell per unit area). DRAM is less expensive
than corresponding SRAM.
n DRAM requires the supporting refresh circuitry. For larger memories, the
fixed cost of the refresh circuitry is
more than compensated for by the less cost of DRAM cells
• n SRAM cells are generally fasterthan the DRAM cells. Therefore, to
construct faster memory modules(like
• cache memory) SRAM is used.
 Internal Organization of Memory Chips

A memory cell is capable of storing 1-bit of

information. A number of memory cells are
organized in the form
of a matrix to form the memory chip. One such
organization is shown in the Figure.
Figure : 16 X 8 Memory Organization
Each row of cells constitutes a memory word, and all cell of a row are connected to a common line which is
referred as word line. An address decoder is used to drive the word line. At a particular instant, one word line is
enabled depending on the address present in the address bus. The cells in each column are connected by two lines.
These are known as bit lines. These bit lines are connected to data input line and data output line through a Sense/
Write circuit. During a Read operation, the Sense/Write circuit sense, or read the information stored in the cells
selected by a word line and transmit this information to the output data line. During a write operation, the sense/write
circuit receive information and store it in the cells of the selected word.

A memory chip consisting of 16 words of 8 bits each, usually referred to as 16 x 8 organization. The data input
and data output line of each Sense/Write circuit are connected to a single bidirectional data line in order to reduce the
pin required. For 16 words, we need an address bus of size 4. In addition to address and data lines, two control lines, R/W
and CS, are provided. The R /W line is to used to specify the required operation about read or write. The CS
(Chip Select) line is required to select a given chip in a multi chip memory system.
Consider a slightly larger memory unit that has 1K (1024) memory cells...
 128 x 8 memory chips:

• If it is organised as a 128 x 8 memory chips,

then it has got 128 memory words of size 8
bits. So the size of data bus
• is 8 bits and the size of address bus is 7 bits
( 2^7 =128 ).
 1024 x 1 memory chips:

If it is organized as a 1024 x 1 memory chips, then it has got

1024 memory words of size 1 bit only.
Therefore, the size of data bus is 1 bit and the size of address
bus is 10 bits ( 2^10 = 1024).
A particular memory location is identified by the contents of
memory address bus. A decoder is used to decode the memory
address. There are two ways of decoding of a memory address
depending upon the organization of the memory module.
In one case, each memory word is organized in a row. In this
case whole memory address bus is used together to decode the
address of the specified location.
In second case, several memory words are
organized in one row. In this case, address bus
is divided into two gropus.
One group is used to form the row address and
the second group is used to form the column
address. Consider the memory organization of
1024 x 1 memory chip. The required 10-bit
address is divided into two groups of 5 bits
each to form the row and column address of
the cell array. A row address selects a row of
32 cells, all of which are accessed in parallel.
However, according to the column address,
only one of these cells is connected to the
external data line via the input output
multiplexers.
• The commercially available memory chips contain a much larger number of
• cells. As for example, a memory unit of 1MB (mega byte) size, organised
• as 1M x 8, contains 2^20 * 8memory cells. It has got memory location
• and each memory location contains 8 bits information. The size of address
• bus is 20 and the size of data bus is 8.
• The number of pins of a memory chip depends on the data bus and
• address bus of the memory module. To reduce the number of pins required
• for the chip, we use another scheme for address decoding. The cells are
• organized in the form of a square array. The address bus is divided into
• two groups, one for column address and other one is for row address. In
• this case, high- and low-order 10 bits of 20-bit address constitute of row
• and column address of a given cell, respectively. In order to reduce the
• number of pin needed for external connections, the row and column
• addresses are multiplexed on ten pins. During a Read or a Write operation,
• the row address is applied first. In response to a signal pulse on the Row
• Address Strobe (RAS) input of the chip, this part of the address is loaded into
• the row address latch.
• All cell of this particular row is selected. Shortly after the row address is latched, the column address is applied to the
• address pins. It is loaded into the column address latch with the help of Column Address Strobe (CAS) signal, similar
• to RAS. The information in this latch is decoded and the appropriate Sense/Write circuit is selected.
For a Write operation, the information at the
input lines are transferred to the selected
circuits.
Now we discuss the design of memory subsystem using memory chips.
Consider a memory chips of capacity 16K x 8. The requirement is to design a
memory subsystem of capacity 64K x 16. Each memory chip has got eight lines
for data bus, but the data bus size of memory subsytem is 16 bits.
The total requiremet is for 64K memory location, so four such units are
required to get the 64K memory location. For 64K memory location, the size of
address bus is 16. On the other hand, for 16K memory location, size of address
bus is 14 bits.
Each chip has a control input line called Chip Select (CS). A chip can be
enabled to accept data input or to place the data on the output bus by setting its
Chip Select input to 1. The address bus for the 64K memory is 16 bits wide. The
high order two bits of the address are decoded to obtain the four chip select
control signals. The remaining 14 address bits are connected to the address
lines of all the chips. They are used to access a specific location inside each
chip of the selected row. The R/W inputs of all chips are tied together to
provide a common READ/WRITE control.
SEE Page 115 notes
 Cache Memory

Analysis of large number of programs has shown that a

number of instructions are executed repeatedly. This may
be
in the form of a simple loops, nested loops, or a few
procedures that repeatedly call each other. It is observed
that
many instructions in each of a few localized areas of the
program are repeatedly executed, while the remainder of
the
program is accessed relatively less. This phenomenon is
referred to as locality of reference.
Now, if it can be arranged to have the active segments of a program in a fast memory, then the
tolal execution time
can be significantly reduced. It is the fact that CPU is a faster device and memory is a relatively
slower device.
Memory access is the main bottleneck for the performance efficiency. If a faster memory device
can be inserted
between main memory and CPU, the efficiency can be increased. The faster memory that is
inserted between CPU
and Main Memory is termed as Cache memory. To make this arrangement effective, the cache
must be considerably
faster than the main memory, and typically it is 5 to 10 time faster than the main memory. This
approach is more
economical than the use of fast memory device to implement the entire main memory. This is also
a feasible due to
the locality of reference that is present in most of the program, which reduces the frequent data
transfer between
main memory and cache memory.
 Operation of Cache Memory

The memory control circuitry is designed to take advantage of the property of locality of reference. Some
assumptions are made while designing the memory control circuitry:
1. The CPU does not need to know explicitly about the existence of the cache.
2. The CPU simply makes Read and Write request. The nature of these two operations are same whether
cache is present or not.
3. The address generated by the CPU always refer to location of main memory.
4. The memory access control circuitry determines whether or not the requested word currently exists in
the cache.
When a Read request is received from the CPU, the contents of a block of memory words containing the
location
specified are transferred into the cache. When any of the locations in this block is referenced by the
program, its
contents are read directly from the cache.
The cache memory can store a number of such blocks at any given time.
The correspondence between the Main Memory Blocks and those in the cache is specified by means of a
mapping
function.
When the cache is full and a memory word is referenced that is not in the cache, a decision must be made as to
which block should be removed from the cache to create space to bring the new block to the cache that contains the
referenced word. Replacement algorithms are used to make the proper selection of block that must be replaced by the
new one.
When a write request is received from the CPU, there are two ways that the system can proceed. In the first case,
the cache location and the main memory location are updated simultaneously. This is called the store through method
or write through method.
The alternative is to update the cache location only. During replacement time, the cache block will be written back to
the main memory. If there is no new write operation in the cache block, it is not required to write back the cache block
in the main memory. This information can be kept with the help of an associated bit. This bit it set while there is a
write operation in the cache block. During replacement, it checks this bit, if it is set, then write back the cache block in
main memory otherwise not. This bit is known as dirty bit. If the bit gets dirty (set to one), writting to main memory is
required.
This write through method is simpler, but it results in unnecessary write operations in the main memory when a given
cache word is updated a number of times during its cache residency period.
Consider the case where the addressed word is not in the cache and the operation is a read. First the block of the
words is brought to the cache and then the requested word is forwarded to the CPU. But it can be forwarded to the
CPU as soon as it is available to the cache, instead of whole block to be loaded into the cache. This is called load
through, and there is some scope to save time while using load through policy.
• During a write operation, if the address word is not in the
cache, the information is written directly into the main
• memory. A write operation normally refers to the location
of data areas and the property of locality of reference is
not
• as pronounced in accessing data when write operation is
involved. Therefore, it is not advantageous to bring the
data
• block to the cache when there a write operation, and the
addressed word is not present in cache.
 Mapping functions
The mapping functions are used to map a particular block of main memory to a particular block of cache.
This
mapping function is used to transfer the block from main memory to cache memory. Three different
mapping
functions are available:
Direct mapping:
A particular block of main memory can be brought to a particular block of cache memory. So, it is not
flexible.
Associative mapping:
In this mapping function, any block of Main memory can potentially reside in any cache block position.
This is much more flexible mapping method.
Block-set-associative mapping:
In this method, blocks of cache are grouped into sets, and the mapping allows a block of main memory
to reside in any block of a specific set. From the flexibility point of view, it is in between to the other two
methods.
 All these three mapping methods are explained with the help of an
example.

Consider a cache of 4096 (4K) words with a block size of 32 words. Therefore, the cache is organized as 128 blocks.
For 4K words, required address lines are 12 bits. To select one of the block out of 128 blocks, we need 7 bits of
address lines and to select one word out of 32 words, we need 5 bits of address lines. So the total 12 bits of address
is divided for two groups, lower 5 bits are used to select a word within a block, and higher 7 bits of address are used
to select any block of cache memory.
Let us consider a main memory system consisting 64K words. The size of address bus is 16 bits. Since the block size
of cache is 32 words, so the main memory is also organized as block size of 32 words. Therefore, the total number of
blocks in main memory is 2048 (2K x 32 words = 64K words). To identify any one block of 2K blocks, we need 11
address lines. Out of 16 address lines of main memory, lower 5 bits are used to select a word within a block and
higher 11 bits are used to select a block out of 2048 blocks.
Number of blocks in cache memory is 128 and number of blocks in main memory is 2048, so at any instant of time
only 128 blocks out of 2048 blocks can reside in cache menory. Therefore, we need mapping function to put a
particular block of main memory into appropriate block of cache memory.
 Direct Mapping Technique:

The simplest way of associating main memory blocks with cache block is the direct mapping technique. In this
technique, block k of main memory maps into block k modulo m of the cache, where m is the total number of blocks
in cache. In this example, the value of m is 128. In direct mapping technique, one particular block of main memory
can be transfered to a particular block of cache which is derived by the modulo function.
Since more than one main memory block is mapped onto a given cache block position, contention may arise for that
position. This situation may occurs even when the cache is not full. Contention is resolved by allowing the new block
to overwrite the currently resident block. So the replacement algorithm is trivial.
The detail operation of direct mapping technique is as follows:
The main memory address is divided into three fields. The field size depends on the memory capacity and the block
size of cache. In this example, the lower 5 bits of address is used to identify a word within a block. Next 7 bits are
used to select a block out of 128 blocks (which is the capacity of the cache). The remaining 4 bits are used as a TAG
to identify the proper block of main memory that is mapped to cache.
When a new block is first brought into the cache, the high order 4 bits of the main memory address are stored in
four
TAG bits associated with its location in the cache. When the CPU generates a memory request, the 7-bit block
address determines the corresponding cache block. The TAG field of that block is compared to the TAG field of the
address. If they match, the desired word specified by the low-order 5 bits of the address is in that block of the
cache.
If there is no match, the required
word must be accessed from the
main memory, that is, the contents
of that block of the cache is
replaced by the new block that is
specified by the new address
generated by the CPU and
correspondingly the TAG bit will
also be changed by the high order
4 bits of the address. The whole
arrangement for direct mapping
technique is shown in the figure.
 Associated Mapping Technique:

In the associative mapping technique, a main memory block can potentially reside in any cache block position. In
this
case, the main memory address is divided into two groups, low-order bits identifies the location of a word within a
block and high-order bits identifies the block. In the example here, 11 bits are required to identify a main memory
block when it is resident in the cache , high-order 11 bits are used as TAG bits and low-order 5 bits are used to
identify a word within a block. The TAG bits of an address received from the CPU must be compared to the TAG bits
of each block of the cache to see if the desired block is present.
In the associative mapping, any block of main memory can go to any block of cache, so it has got the
complete flexibility and we have to use proper replacement policy to replace a block from cache if the currently
accessed block of main memory is not present in cache. It might not be practical to use this complete flexibility of
associative mapping technique due to searching overhead, because the TAG field of main memory address has to
be compared with the TAG field of all the cache block. In this example, there are 128 blocks in cache and the size of
TAG is 11 bits. The whole arrangement of Associative Mapping Technique is shown in the figure (Next Page..).
Block-Set-Associative Mapping Technique
• :
This mapping technique is intermediate to the above two techniques. Blocks of the cache are grouped into sets, and
the mapping allows a block of main memory to reside in any block of a specific set. Therefore, the flexibity of
associative mapping is reduced from full freedom to a set of specific blocks. This also reduces the searching
overhead, because the search is restricted to number of sets, instead of number of blocks. Also the contention
problem of the direct mapping is eased by having a few choices for block replacement.
Consider the same cache memory and main memory organization of the previous example. Organize the cache with
4 blocks in each set. The TAG field of associative mapping technique is divided into two groups, one is termed as
SET bit and the second one is termed as TAG bit. Since each set contains 4 blocks, total number of set is 32. The
main memory address is grouped into three parts: low-order 5 bits are used to identifies a word within a block. Since
there are total 32 sets present, next 5 bits are used to identify the set. High-order 6 bits are used as TAG bits.
The 5-bit set field of the address determines which set of the cache might contain the desired block. This is similar to
direct mapping technique, in case of direct mapping, it looks for block, but in case of block-set-associative mapping, it
looks for set. The TAG field of the address must then be compared with the TAGs of the four blocks of that set. If a
match occurs, then the block is present in the cache; otherwise the block containing the addressed word must be
brought to the cache. This block will potentially come to the cooresponding set only. Since, there are four blocks in
the set, we have to choose appropriately which block to be replaced if all the blocks are occupied. Since the search is
restricted to four block only, so the searching complexity is reduced. The whole arrangement of block-set-associative
mapping technique is shown in the figure.
It is clear that if we increase the number of blocks per set, then the
number of bits in SET field is
reduced. Due to the increase of
blocks per set, complexity of
search is also increased. The
extreme condition of 128 blocks
per set requires no set bits and
corrsponds to the fully associative
mapping technique with 11 TAG
bits. The other extreme of one
block per set is the direct mapping
method.
 Replacement Algorithms

When a new block must be brought into the cache and all the
positions that it may occupy are full, a decision must be
made as to which of the old blocks is to be overwritten. In
general, a policy is required to keep the block in cache
when they are likely to be referenced in near future.
However, it is not easy to determine directly which of the
block in
the cache are about to be referenced. The property of locality
of reference gives some clue to design good
replacement policy.
• Least Recently Used (LRU) Replacement policy:
Since program usually stay in localized areas for reasonable periods of time, it can be assumed that there
is a high
probability that blocks which have been referenced recently will also be referenced in the near future.
Therefore,
when a block is to be overwritten, it is a good decision to overwrite the one that has gone for longest
time without
being referenced. This is defined as the least recently used (LRU) block. Keeping track of LRU block must
be done
as computation proceeds.
Consider a specific example of a four-block set. It is required to track the LRU block of this four-block set.
A 2-bit
counter may be used for each block.
When a hit occurs, that is, when a read request is received for a word that is in the cache, the counter of
the block
that is referenced is set to 0. All counters which values originally lower than the referenced one are
incremented by 1
and all other counters remain unchanged.
When a miss occurs, that is, when a read request is received for a word and the
word is not present in the cache, we
have to bring the block to cache.
There are two possibilities in case of a miss:
If the set is not full, the counter associated with the new block loaded from
the main memory is set to 0,
and the values of all other counters are incremented by 1.
If the set is full and a miss occurs, the block with the counter value 3 is
removed , and the new block is
put in its palce. The counter value is set to zero. The other three block counters are
incremented by 1.
It is easy to verify that the counter values of occupied blocks are always distinct.
Also it is trivial that highest counter
value indicates least recently used block.
 First In First Out (FIFO) replacement policy:

A reasonable rule may be to remove the oldest from a full set when a new block must be
brought in. While using this
technique, no updation is required when a hit occurs. When a miss occurs and the set is
not full, the new block is put
into an empty block and the counter values of the occupied block will be increment by
one. When a miss occurs and
the set is full, the block with highest counter value is replaced by new block and counter
is set to 0, counter value of
all other blocks of that set is incremented by 1. The overhead of the policy is less, since
no updation is required
during hit.
Random replacement policy:
The simplest algorithm is to choose the block to be overwritten at random. Interestingly
enough, this simple algorithm
has been found to be very effective in practice.
 Main Memory

The main working principle of digital computer is Von-Neumann stored program principle. First of all we have to
keep
all the information in some storage, mainly known as main memory, and CPU interacts with the main memory only.
Therefore, memory management is an important issue while designing a computer system.
On the otherhand, everything cannot be implemented in hardware, otherwise the cost of system will be very high.
Therefore some of the tasks are performed by software program. Collection of such software programs are basically
known as operating systems. So operating system is viewed as extended machine. Many more functions or
instructions are implemented through software routine. The operating system is mainly memory resistant, i.e., the
operating system is loaded into main memory.
Due to that, the main memory of a computer is divided into two parts. One part is
reserved for operating system. The other part is for user program. The program
currently being executed by the CPU is loaded into the user part of the memory.
In a uni-programming system, the program currently being executed is loaded into
the user part of the memory.
In a multiprogramming system, the user part of memory is subdivided to accomodate
multiple process. The task of subdivision is carried out dynamically by opearting
system and is known as memory management.
Efficient memory management is vital in a multiprogramming system. If only a few process are in memory, then for
much of the time all of the process will be waiting for I/O and the processor will idle. Thus memory needs to be
allocated efficiently to pack as many processes into main memory as possible.
When memory holds multiple processes, then the process can move from one process to another process when one
process is waiting. But the processor is so much faster then I/O that it will be common for all the processes in
memory to be waiting for I/O. Thus, even with multiprogramming, a processor could be idle most of the time.
Due to the speed mismatch of the
processor and I/O device, the
status at any point in time is
reffered to as a state.
There are five defined state of a
process as shown in the figure.
When we start to execute a
process, it is placed in the process
queue and it is in the new state. As
resources become available, then
the process is placed in the ready
queue.
Figure : Five State process model
1.New : A program is admitted by the scheduler, but not yet ready to execute. The operating system will
initialize the process by moving it to the ready state.
2.Ready : The process is ready to execute and is waiting access to the processor.
3.Running : The process is being executed by the processor. At any given time, only one process is in running
state.
4. Waiting : The process is suspended from execution, waiting for some system resource, such as I/O.
5. Exit : The process has terminated and will be destroyed by the operating system.
The processor alternates between executing operating system instructions and executing user processes. While
the
operating system is in control, it decides which process in the queue sholud be executed next.
A process being executed may be suspended for a variety of reasons. If it is suspended because the process
requests I/O, then it is places in the appropriate I/O queue. If it is suspended because of a timeout or because the
operating system must attend to processing some of it's task, then it is placed in ready state.
We know that the information of all the process that are in execution must be placed in main memory. Since
there is
fix amount of memory, so memory management is an important issue.
 Memory Management

In an uniprogramming system, main memory is divided into two parts : one part for the operating
system and the
other part for the program currently being executed.
In multiprogramming system, the user part of
memory is subdivided to accomodate multiple
processes.
The task of subdivision is carried out
dynamically by the operating system and is
known as memory management.
In uniprogramming system, only one program
is in execution. After complition of one
program, another program may start.
In general, most of the programs involve I/O
operation. It must take input from some input
device and place the result in some output
device.
To utilize the idle time of CPU, we are shifting the paradigm from uniprogram environment to multiprogram
environment.
Since the size of main memory is fixed, it is possible to accomodate only few process in the main memory. If all are
waiting for I/O operation, then again CPU remains idle.
To utilize the idle time of CPU, some of the process must be off loaded from the memory and new process must be
brought to this memory place. This is known swapping.
What is swapping :
1. The process waiting for some I/O to complete, must stored back in disk.
2. New ready process is swapped in to main memory as space becomes available.
3. As process completes, it is moved out of main memory.
4. If none of the processes in memory are ready,
n Swapped out a block process to intermediate queue of blocked process.
n Swapped in a ready process from the ready queue.
But swapping is an I/O process, so it also takes time. Instead of remain in idle state of CPU, sometimes it is
advantageous to swapped in a ready process and start executing it.
The main question arises where to put a new process in the main memory. It must be done in such a way that the
memory is utilized properly.
 Partitioning

Splitting of memory into sections to allocate processes including operating

system. There are two scheme for
partitioning :
m Fixed size partitions
m Variable size partitions
Fixed sized pertitions:
The mamory is partitioned to fixed size
partition. Although the partitions are of fixed
size, they need not be of equal size.
There is a problem of wastage of memory in
fixed size even with unequal size. When a
process is brought into memory, it is placed in
the smallest available partition that will hold it.
Even with the use of unequal size of partitions, there will be wastage of memory. In most cases, a process will not
require exactly as much memory as provided by the partition.
For example, a process that require 5-MB of memory would be placed in the 6-MB partition which is the smallest
available partition. In this partition, only 5-MB is used, the remaining 1-MB can not be used by any other process, so
it is a wastage. Like this, in every partition we may have some unused memory. The unused portion of memory in
each partition is termed as hole.
Variable size Partition:
When a processe is brought into memory, it is allocated exactly as much memory as it requires and no more. In this
process it leads to a hole at the end of the memory, which is too small to use. It seems that there will be only one
hole at the end, so the waste is less.
But, this is not the only hole that will be present in variable size partition. When all processes are blocked then swap
out a process and bring in another process. The new swapped in process may be smaller than the swapped out
process. Most likely we will not get two process of same size. So, it will create another whole. If the swap- out and
swap-in is occuring more time, then more and more hole will be created, which will lead to more wastage of memory.
There are two simple ways to slightly remove the problem of memory wastage:
Coalesce : Join the adjacent holes into one large hole , so that some process can be
accomodated into the
hole.
Compaction : From time to time go through memory and move all hole into one free block of
memory.
During the execution of process, a process may be swapped in or swapped out many times. it is
obvious that a
process is not likely to be loaded into the same place in main memory each time it is swapped
in. Further more if
compaction is used, a process may be shiefted while in main memory.
A process in memory consists of instruction plus data. The instruction will contain address for
memory
locations of two types:
l Address of data item
l Address of instructions used for branching instructions
These addresses will change each time a process is swapped in. To solve this problem, a distinction is made
between logical address and physical address.
l Logical address is expressed as a location relative to the begining of the program. Instructions in the program
contains only logical address.
l Physical address is an actual location in main memory.
When the processor executes a process, it automatically converts from logical to physical address by adding the
current starting location of the process, called it's base address to each logical address.
Every time the process is swapped in to main memory, the base address may be diffrent depending on the
allocation
of memory to the process.
Consider a main memory of 2-MB out of which 512-KB is used by the Operating System. Consider three process of
size 425-KB, 368-KB and 470-KB and these three process are loaded into the memory. This leaves a hole at the end
of the memory. That is too small for a fourth process. At some point none of the process in main memory is ready.
The operating system swaps out process-2 which leaves sufficient room for new process of size 320-KB. Since
process-4 is smaller then process-2, another hole is created. Later a point is reached at which none of the processes
in the main memory is ready, but proces-2, so process-1 is swapped out and process-2 is swapped in there. It will
create another hole. In this way it will create lot of small holes in the momory system which will lead to more
memory
wastage.
Figure : The effect of dynamic partitioning
 Paging

Both unequal fixed size and variable size partitions are inefficient in the use of memory. It has been
observed that
both schemes lead to memory wastage. Therefore we are not using the memory efficiently.
There is another scheme for use of memory which is known as paging.
In this scheme,
The memory is partitioned into equal fixed size chunks that are relatively small. This chunk of memory is
known as frames or page frames.
Each process is also divided into small fixed chunks of same size. The chunks of a program is known as
pages.
A page of a program could be assigned to available page frame.
In this scheme, the wastage space in memory for a process is a fraction of a page frame which
corresponds to the
last page of the program.
At a given point of time some of the frames in memory are in use and some are free. The list of free
frame is
maintained by the operating system.
• Process A , stored in disk , consists of pages . At the time of execution of the process A, the operating system finds
• six free frames and loads the six pages of the process A into six frames.
• These six frames need not be contiguous frames in main memory. The operating system maintains a page table for
• each process.
• Within the program, each logical address consists of page number and a relative address within the page.
• In case of simple partitioning, a logical address is the location of a word relative to the beginning of the program; the
• processor translates that into a physical address.
• With paging, a logical address is a location of the word relative to the beginning of the page of the program, because
• the whole program is divided into several pages of equal length and the length of a page is same with the length of a
• page frame.
• A logical address consists of page number and relative address within the page, the process uses the page table to
• produce the physical address which consists of frame number and relative address within the frame.
• The figure on next page shows the allocation of frames to a new process in the main memory. A page table is
• maintained for each process. This page table helps us to find the physical address in a frame which corresponds to a
• logical address within a process.
 The conversion of logical address to physical
address is shown in the figure for the Process A.
• This approach solves the problems. Main
memory is divided into many small equal size
frames. Each process is
• divided into frame size pages. Smaller process
requires fewer pages, larger process requires
more. When a process
• is brought in, its pages are loaded into
available frames and a page table is set up.
 Virtual Memory

The concept of paging helps us to develop truly effective multiprogramming systems.

Since a process need not be loaded into contiguous memory locations, it helps us to put a page of a process in any
free page frame. On the other hand, it is not required to load the whole process to the main memory, because the
execution may be confined to a small section of the program. (eg. a subroutine).
It would clearly be wasteful to load in many pages for a process when only a few pages will be used before the
program is suspended.
Instead of loading all the pages of a process, each page of process is brought in only when it is needed, i.e on
demand. This scheme is known as demand paging.
Demand paging also allows us to accommodate more process in the main memory, since we are not going to load
the whole process in the main memory, pages will be brought into the main memory as and when it is required.
With demand paging, it is not necessary to load an entire process into main memory.
This concept leads us to an important consequence – It is possible for a process to be larger than the size of main
memory. So, while developing a new process, it is not required to look for the main memory available in the
machine.
Because, the process will be divided into pages and pages will be brought to memory on demand.
Because a process executes only in main memory, so the main memory is referred to as real memory or physical
memory.
A programmer or user perceives a much larger memory that is allocated on the disk. This memory is referred to
as
virtual memory. The program enjoys a huge virtual memory space to develop his or her program or software.
The execution of a program is the job of operating system and the underlying hardware. To improve the
performance
some special hardware is added to the system. This hardware unit is known as Memory Management Unit
(MMU).
In paging system, we make a page table for the process. Page table helps us to find the physical address from
virtual
address.
The virtual address space is used to develop a process. The special hardware unit , called Memory Management
Unit
(MMU) translates virtual address to physical address. When the desired data is in the main memory, the CPU
can
work with these data. If the data are not in the main memory, the MMU causes the operating system to bring
into the
memory from the disk.
 Address Translation

The basic mechanism for reading a word from memory involves the translation of a virtual or logical address,
consisting of page number and offset, into a physical address, consisting of frame number and offset, using a
page
table.
There is one page table for each process. But each process can occupy huge amount of virtual memory. But the
virtual memory of a process cannot go beyond a certain limit which is restricted by the underlying hardware of
the
MMU. One of such component may be the size of the virtual address register.
The sizes of pages are relatively small and so the size of page table increases as the size of process increases.
Therefore, size of page table could be unacceptably high.
To overcome this problem, most virtual memory scheme store page table in virtual memory rather than in real
memory.
This means that the page table is subject to paging just as other pages are.
When a process is running, at least a part of its page table must be in main memory, including the page table
entry of
the currently executing page.

A virtual address translation method is shown in the figure on next page.

Each virtual address generated by the processor is interpreted as virtual page
number (high order list) followed by an
offset (lower order bits) that specifies the location of a particular word within a
page. Information about the main
memory location of each page kept in a page table.
Some processors make use of a two level scheme to organize large page tables.
In this scheme, there is a page directory, in which each entry points to a page
table.
Thus, if the length of the page directory is X, and if the maximum length of a
page table is Y, then the process can
consist of up to X x Y pages.
Typically, the maximum length of page table is restricted to the size of one page
frame.
 Inverted page table structures

There is one entry in the hash table and the inverted page table for
each real memory page rather than one per
virtual page.
Thus a fixed portion of real memory is required for the page table,
regardless of the number of processes or virtual
page supported.
Because more than one virtual address may map into the hash table
entry, a chaining technique is used for
managing the overflow.
The hashing techniques results in chains that are typically short –
either one or two entries.
The inverted page table in shown in the figure on next page...
 Translation Lookaside Buffer (TLB)

Every virtual memory reference can cause two physical memory accesses.
One to fetch the appropriate page table entry
One to fetch the desired data.
Thus a straight forward virtual memory scheme would have the effect of doubling the memory
access time.
To overcome this problem, most virtual memory schemes make use of a special cache for page
table entries, usually
called Translation Lookaside Buffer (TLB).
This cache functions in the same way as a memory cache and contains those page table entries
that have been most
recently used.
In addition to the information that constitutes a page table entry, the TLB must also include the
virtual address of the
entry.
The figure in next page shows a possible organization of a TLB where the associative mapping
technique is used.
Set-associative mapped TLBs are also found in commercial
products.
An essential requirement is that the contents of the TLB
be coherent with the contents of the page table in the
main
memory.
When the operating system changes the contents of the
page table it must simultaneously invalidate the
corresponding entries in the TLB. One of the control bits
in the TLB is provided for this purpose.
 Address Translation proceeds as follows:

l Given a virtual address, the MMU looks in the TLB for the reference page.
l If the page table entry for this page is found in the TLB, the physical address is obtained immediately.
l If there is a miss in the TLB, then the required entry is obtained from the page table in the main memory
and
the TLB is updated.
l When a program generates an access request to a page that is not in the main memory, a page fault is said
to
have occurred.
l The whole page must be brought from the disk into the memory before access can proceed.
l When it detects a page fault, the MMU asks the operating system to intervene by raising an exception.
(interrupt).
l Processing of active task is interrupted, and control is transferred to the operating system.
l The operating system then copies the requested page from the disk into the main memory and returns
control
to the interrupted task. Because a long delay occurs due to a page transfer takes place, the operating system
may suspend execution of the task that caused the page fault and begin execution of another task whose
page
are in the main memory.