DBMS

Introduction
Unit - 1

Mrs.B.Ida Seraphim AP/CSE

DBMS – Data Base Management System
• A database-management system (DBMS) is a collection of
interrelated data and a set of programs to access those data.
• Database - The collection of data, that contains information
relevant to an enterprise.
• DBMS is to provide a way to store and retrieve database
information.
Importance
• Database systems are designed to manage large bodies of
information.
• Management of data involves both defining structures for
storage of information and providing mechanisms for the
manipulation of information.
• Ensure the safety of the information stored, despite system
crashes or attempts at unauthorized access.
• If data are to be shared among several users, the system must
avoid possible anomalous results.
Database-System Applications
• Banking: all transactions.
• Airlines: reservations, schedules.
• Universities: registration, grades.
• Sales: customers, products, purchases.
• Manufacturing: production, inventory, orders, supply
chain.
• Human resources: employee records, salaries, tax
deductions.
• Credit card transactions: Purchase, generation of
monthly statements.
• Finance: storing information about holdings, sales, and
purchases of financial instruments such as stocks and
bonds.
• Telecommunication: keeping records of calls made,
generating monthly bills, maintaining balances on
prepaid calling cards, and storing information about the
communication networks.
 Purpose of Database Systems
File-processing system
• Supported by a conventional operating system.
• The system stores permanent records in various files, and it needs different application programs to extract records from,
and add records to, the appropriate files.
• Before database management systems (DBMSs) were introduced, organizations usually stored information in such
systems.

Disadvantage
Data redundancy: Multiple file formats, duplication of information in different files.
• E.g.: Student has a double major (music and mathematics) the address and telephone number of that student may appear
in a file that consists of student records of students in the Music department and in a file that consists of student records
of students in the Mathematics department.
• This redundancy leads to higher storage and access cost.

Data inconsistency: The various copies of the same data may no longer agree.
• E.g.: A changed student address may be reflected in the Music department records but not elsewhere in the system.
Difficulty in accessing data: Need to write a new program to carry out each new task.
• Conventional file-processing environments do not allow needed data to be retrieved in a convenient and
efficient manner.
• More responsive data-retrieval systems are required for general use.

Data isolation: Data are scattered in various files, and files may be in different formats, writing new application
programs to retrieve the appropriate data is difficult.

Integrity problems: The data values stored in the database must satisfy certain types of consistency constraints.
• E.g.: account balance < 0 (never fall less than zero).
• Hard to add new constraints or change existing ones.

Atomicity problems: Failures may leave the database in an inconsistent state with partial updates carried out.
• E.g.: Transfer of funds from one account to another should either be complete or not happen at all.
• Difficult to ensure atomicity in a conventional file-processing system.
• Concurrent-access anomalies: For the sake of overall performance of the system and faster response, many
systems allow multiple users to update the data simultaneously.
• Uncontrolled concurrent accesses can lead to inconsistencies.
• E.g.: Two people reading a balance and updating it at the same time.
• Consider department A, with an account balance of $10,000. If two department clerks debit the account
balance ($500 and $100) of department A at almost exactly the same time the result of the concurrent
executions may leave the budget in an incorrect (or inconsistent) state.
• If the two programs run concurrently, they may both read the value $10,000, and write back $9500 and
$9900, respectively. Depending on which one writes the value last, the account balance of department A may
contain either $9500 or $9900, rather than the correct value of $9400.

• Security problems: Not every user of the database system should be able to access all the data.
• E.g.: in a university, payroll personnel need to see only that part of the database that has financial
information. They do not need access to information about academic records.

Database systems offer solutions to all the above problems

Levels of Data Abstraction
• Physical level: The lowest level of abstraction.
• Describes how the data are actually stored.
• The physical level describes complex low-level data structures in
detail.
• Logical level: Describes what data are stored in the database, and
what relationships exist among those data.
type customer = record
name : string;
street : string;
city : integer;
end;

• View level: The highest level of abstraction. Describes only part of

the entire database. Application programs hide details of data types.
• Views can also hide information (e.g., salary) for security purposes.
 Instances and Schemas
• Instance: The collection of information stored in the database at a particular moment.
• Schema: The overall design of the database is called the database schema.
• The concept of database schemas and instances can be understood by analogy to a program written in a
programming language.

• A database schema corresponds to the variable declarations (along with associated type definitions) in a program.
• The values of the variables in a program at a point in time correspond to an instance of a database schema.

• Physical schema: Describes the database design at the physical level.

• Logical schema: Describes the database design at the logical level .
• Subschemas: A database may also have several schemas at the view level.

• Physical Data Independence: The ability to modify the physical schema without changing the logical schema.
• Applications depend on the logical schema.
• In general, the interfaces between the various levels and components should be well defined so that
changes in some parts do not seriously influence others.
Data Models
• A collection of conceptual tools for describing data, data
relationships, data semantics, and consistency constraints.
• A data model provides a way to describe the design of a database
at the physical, logical, and view levels.

• Relational Model: The relational model uses a collection of

tables to represent both data and the relationships among those
data.
• Each table has multiple columns, and each column has a unique
name.
• Tables are also known as relations. The relational model is an
example of a record-based model.

• Entity-Relationship Model: The entity-relationship (E-R) data

model uses a collection of basic objects, called entities, and
relationships among these objects.
• The entity-relationship model is widely used in database design.
• Object-Based Data Model: The development of an object-oriented data model that can be seen as
extending the E-R model with notions of encapsulation, methods (functions), and object identity.
• The object-relational data model combines features of the object-oriented data model and relational
data model.

• Semi structured Data Model: The semi structured data model permits the specification of data where
individual data items of the same type may have different sets of attributes.
• The Extensible Markup Language (XML) is widely used to represent semi structured data.

The network data model and the hierarchical data model preceded the relational data model.
 Relational Model
• Tuple – one row of a relation
• Attribute – one column of a relation
• Relation – the whole table
• Domain of an attribute – all the values that the attribute
Entity-Relationship Model
• E-R model of real world
• Entities (objects)
• E.g. Teacher, Department.
• Relationships between entities
• Relationship set teaches in associates teacher with department.

• Widely used for database design.

• Entity sets are represented by a rectangular box with the entity set
name in the header and the attributes listed below it.

• Relationship sets are represented by a diamond connecting a pair of

related entity sets.
• The name of the relationship is placed inside the diamond.

• Mapping cardinalities: The number of entities to which another entity

can be associated via a relationship set.
 Database Languages
• A database system provides a Data-Definition Language (DDL) to specify the database
schema and a Data-Manipulation Language (DML) to express database queries and updates.

Data-Manipulation Language (DML)

• A data-manipulation language (DML) is a language that enables users to access or manipulate
data as organized by the appropriate data model.

The types of access are

• Retrieval of information stored in the database
• Insertion of new information into the database
• Deletion of information from the database
• Modification of information stored in the database

• Procedural DMLs require a user to specify what data are needed and how to get those data.
• Declarative DMLs (also called as nonprocedural DMLs) require a user to specify what data are
needed without specifying how to get those data.

• A query is a statement requesting the retrieval of information. The portion of a DML that
involves information retrieval is called a query language.
Database Languages

DDL is Data Definition Language statements

• Some examples

• CREATE - to create objects in the database

• ALTER - alters the structure of the database
• DROP - delete objects from the database
• TRUNCATE - remove all records from a table
• COMMENT - add comments to the data dictionary
DML is Data Manipulation Language statements
• Some examples:

• SELECT - retrieve data from the a database

• INSERT - insert data into a table
• UPDATE - updates existing data within a table
• DELETE - deletes all records from a table, the space for the
records remain
• CALL - call a PL/SQL or Java subprogram
• EXPLAIN PLAN - explain access path to data
• LOCK TABLE - control concurrency
TCL(Transaction Control Language) is a DML
• COMMIT - save work done
• SAVEPOINT - identify a point in a transaction to which you can
later roll back
• ROLLBACK - restore database to original since the last
COMMIT
• SET TRANSACTION - Change transaction options like what
rollback segment to use

DCL is Data Control Language statements

• Some examples:
• GRANT - gives user's access privileges to database
• REVOKE - withdraw access privileges given with the GRANT
command
 Data-Definition Language
• Set of definitions expressed by a special language called a data-definition language (DDL).
• The storage structure and access methods used by the database system by a set of statements in a
special type of DDL called a data storage and definition language.
• The data values stored in the database must satisfy certain consistency constraints.
• Domain Constraints: A domain of possible values must be associated with every attribute (for
example, integer types, character types, date/time types).
• Domain constraints are the most elementary form of integrity constraint.
• Referential Integrity: There are cases where we wish to ensure that a value that appears in one
relation for a given set of attributes also appears in a certain set of attributes in another relation
(referential integrity).
• Database modifications can cause violations of referential integrity.
• Assertions: An assertion is any condition that the database must always satisfy. Domain
constraints and referential-integrity constraints are special forms of assertions.
• Authorization: To differentiate among the users as far as the type of access they are permitted on
various data values in the database. These differentiations are expressed in terms of authorization.
• Read Authorization - which allows reading, but not modification of data.
• Insert Authorization - which allows insertion of new data but not modification of existing data.
• update authorization - which allows modification but not deletion of data.
• Delete Authorization - which allows deletion of data.

• The output of the DDL is placed in the data dictionary which contains metadata - that is, data about data.
• SQL provides a rich DDL that allows one to define tables, integrity constraints, assertions, etc.

create table department (dept name char (20), building char (15), budget numeric (12,2));

• Execution of the above DDL statement creates the department table with three columns: dept name,
building, and budget, each of which has a specific data type associated with it.
 CREATING DATABASE TABLE

• CREATE – creates a new table in the database

• Used to create a table by defining its structure, the data type and name of the various
columns, the relationships with columns of other tables etc.

• CREATE TABLE table_name (column_name1 data_type(size), column_name2

data_type(size),…., column_nameN data_type(size));

• E.g.:
CREATE TABLE Employee(Name varchar2(20), DOB date, Salary number(6));
ALTER - Add a new attribute or Modify the characteristics of some existing attribute.

• ALTER TABLE table_name ADD (column_name1 data_type (size), column_name2 data_type (size),
….., column_nameN data_type (size));

E.g.:
ALTER TABLE Employee ADD (Address varchar2(20));
ALTER TABLE Employee ADD (Designation varchar2(20), Dept varchar2(3));
ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY (column_name data_type(new_size));

E.g.:

ALTER TABLE Employee MODIFY (Name varchar2(30));

ALTER - dropping a column from the table

• ALTER TABLE table_name DROP COLUMN column_name;

E.g.:

ALTER TABLE Student DROP COLUMN Age;

DROP - Deleting an entire table from the database.

DROP TABLE table_name;

E.g.:
DROP TABLE Employee

RENAME – Renaming the table

RENAME old_table_name TO new_table_name;

E.g.:
RENAME Employee TO Employee_details
• TRUNCATE – deleting all rows from a table and free the space containing the table.

TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

E.g.:
TRUNCATE TABLE Employee_details;
 Data Manipulation Language

A DML statement is executed when you

• Add new rows to a table
• Modify existing rows in a table
• Remove existing rows from a table
Add new rows to a table by using the INSERT statement.
1. INSERT INTO table VALUES(value1, value2,..);
• Only one row is inserted at a time with this syntax.
• List values in the default order of the columns in the table
• Enclose character and date values within single quotation marks.
• Insert a new row containing values for each column.

E.g.:
• INSERT INTO Employee VALUES (‘ashok’, ‘16-mar-1998’, 30000);

2. INSERT INTO table(column1, column2,..)VALUES(value1, value2,..);

• Rows can be inserted with NULL values either
• by omitting column from the column list or
• by specifying NULL in the value field.
E.g.:
• INSERT INTO Employee (name, dob, salary) VALUES (‘ashok’, ‘16-mar-1998’, 30000);
3. INSERT INTO table_name1 SELECT column_name1, column_name2,
….,column_nameN FROM table_name2;

• INSERT INTO Employee_details SELECT name, dob FROM Exmployee;

Data-Manipulation Language (DML)

• The SQL query language is nonprocedural.

select instructor.name from instructor where instructor.dept name

= ’History’;

• Queries may involve information from more than one table.

select instructor.ID, department.dept name from instructor,

department where instructor.dept name= department.dept name
and department.budget > 95000;
Database Architecture
• Database applications are usually partitioned into
two or three parts.
• In a two-tier architecture, the application resides
at the client machine, where it invokes database
system functionality at the server machine
through query language statements.
• Three-tier architecture - the client machine acts
as merely a front end and does not contain any
direct database calls.
 Database Users
• Users are differentiated by the way they expect to interact with the system

• Naive users: unsophisticated users who interact with the system by invoking one of the application
programs that have been written previously.

• Application programmers: computer professionals who write application programs. Application

programmers can choose from many tools to develop user interfaces.

• Sophisticated users: interact with the system without writing programs.

• Specialized users: sophisticated users who write specialized database applications that do not fit into
the traditional data-processing framework.
 Database Administrator
• One of the main reasons for using DBMSs is to have central control of both the data and the programs that
access those data.
• A person who has such central control over the system is called a database administrator (DBA).
• Schema definition: The DBA creates the original database schema by executing a set of data definition
statements in the DDL.

• Storage structure and access-method definition.

• Schema and physical-organization modification: The DBA carries out changes to the schema and
physical organization to reflect the changing needs of the organization, or to alter the physical
organization to improve performance.

• Granting of authorization for data access: By granting different types of authorization, the database
administrator can regulate which parts of the database various users can access.

• Routine maintenance: Periodically backing up the database, Ensuring that enough free disk space,
Monitoring jobs running on the database.
 Transaction Management
• Atomicity - all-or-none requirement.
• one department account (A) is debited and another department account (B) is credited.
• Either both the credit and debit occur, or that neither occur.
• Consistency - it is essential that the execution of the funds transfer preserve the consistency of the
database. The value of the sum of the balances of A and B must be preserved.
• This is called correctness requirement.
• Durability - After the successful execution of a funds transfer, the new values of the balances of
accounts A and B must persist, despite the possibility of system failure.
• This is called persistence requirement.
 Storage Manager
• The storage manager is the component of a database system that provides the interface between the low-
level data stored in the database and the application programs and queries submitted to the system.
• The storage manager is responsible for the interaction with the file manager.
The storage manager components include
• Authorization and integrity manager: which tests for the satisfaction of integrity constraints and checks
the authority of users to access data.
• Transaction manager: which ensures that the database remains in a consistent (correct) state despite
system failures, and that concurrent transaction executions proceed without conflicting.
• File manager: which manages the allocation of space on disk storage and the data structures used to
represent information stored on disk.
• Buffer manager: which is responsible for fetching data from disk storage into main memory, and deciding
what data to cache in main memory.
• The buffer manager is a critical part of the database system, since it enables the database to handle data
sizes that are much larger than the size of main memory.
• The storage manager implements several data structures as part of the physical system implementation
• Data files: which store the database itself.
• Data dictionary: which stores metadata about the structure of the database, in particular the schema of the
database.
• Indices: which can provide fast access to data items.
• Like the index in this textbook, a database index provides pointers to those data items that hold a particular
value.
The Query Processor
• The query processor components include
• DDL interpreter: which interprets DDL statements and records the definitions in the data dictionary.
• DML compiler: which translates DML statements in a query language into an evaluation plan consisting of
low-level instructions that the query evaluation engine understands.
• A query can usually be translated into any of a number of alternative evaluation plans that all give the same
result. The DML compiler also performs query optimization; that is, it picks the lowest cost evaluation
plan from among the alternatives.
• Query evaluation engine: which executes low-level instructions generated by the DML compiler.
DML Commands
Command Explanation
Select The SELECT operation is used for selecting a subset of the tuples according to a given
selection condition
Projection The projection eliminates all attributes of the input relation but those mentioned in the
projection list.
Union UNION is symbolized by symbol. It includes all tuples that are in tables A or in B.
Intersection Intersection defines a relation consisting of a set of all tuple that are in both A and B.
Cartesian Product Cartesian operation is helpful to merge columns from two relations.
Inner Join Inner join, includes only those tuples that satisfy the matching criteria.
Outer Join In an outer join, along with tuples that satisfy the matching criteria.
 UNION Operator

• UNION operator is used to combine the result sets of 2 or more SELECT statements. It removes duplicate
rows between the various SELECT statements.

• Each SELECT statement statement within the UNION operator must have the same number of fields in the
result sets with similar data types.

SELECT expression1, expression2, ... expression_n FROM tables [WHERE conditions] UNION SELECT expression1,
expression2, ... expression_n FROM tables [WHERE conditions];

• There must be same number of expressions in both SELECT statements.

• Since the UNION operator by default removes all duplicate rows from the result set, providing the UNION
DISTINCT modifier has no effect on the results.
• The column names from the first SELECT statement in the UNION operator are used as the column names
for the result set.

SELECT department_id FROM departments UNION SELECT department_id FROM employees;

 INTERSECT Operator

• The SQLite INTERSECT operator returns the intersection of 2 or more datasets. Each dataset is defined by a SELECT statement.
• If a record exists in both data sets, it will be included in the INTERSECT results.
• If a record exists in one data set and not in the other, it will be omitted from the INTERSECT results.

SELECT expression1, expression2, ... expression_n FROM tables [WHERE conditions] INTERSECT SELECT expression1,
expression2, ... expression_n FROM tables [WHERE conditions];

• There must be same number of expressions in both SELECT statements.

• The corresponding expressions must have the same data type in the SELECT statements. For example: expression1 must be the
same data type in both the first and second SELECT statement.
Example - With Single Expression
SELECT department_id FROM departments INTERSECT SELECT department_id FROM employees;
WHERE conditions to the INTERSECT query

SELECT department_id FROM departments WHERE department_id >= 25 INTERSECT SELECT department_id FROM
employees WHERE last_name = 'Anderson';
• Example - With Multiple Expressions

SELECT contact_id, last_name, first_name FROM contacts WHERE contact_id > 50 INTERSECT SELECT
customer_id, last_name, first_name FROM customers WHERE last_name <> 'Peterson';

• ORDER BY clause is used to sort the data in an ascending or descending order, based on one or more columns.

SELECT column-list FROM table_name [WHERE condition] [ORDER BY column1, column2, .. columnN] [ASC | DESC];

SELECT * FROM COMPANY ORDER BY SALARY ASC;

SELECT * FROM COMPANY ORDER BY NAME DESC

• GROUP BY clause is used in collaboration with the SELECT statement to arrange identical data into groups.
• GROUP BY clause follows the WHERE clause in a SELECT statement and precedes the ORDER BY clause.

SELECT column-list FROM table_name WHERE [ conditions ] GROUP BY column1, column2....columnN ORDER BY
column1, column2....columnN

SELECT NAME, SUM(SALARY) FROM COMPANY GROUP BY NAME;

SELECT NAME, SUM(SALARY) FROM COMPANY GROUP BY NAME ORDER BY NAME;
• AND & OR operators are used to compile multiple conditions to narrow down the selected data in an SQL
statement. These two operators are called conjunctive operators.
• The AND operator allows the existence of multiple conditions in a SQLite statement's WHERE clause.
 [condition1] AND [condition2] will be true only when both condition1 and condition2 are true.

SELECT column1, column2, columnN FROM table_name WHERE [condition1] AND [condition2]...AND [conditionN];

SELECT * FROM COMPANY WHERE AGE >= 25 AND SALARY >= 65000;
• The OR operator is also used to combine multiple conditions in a SQL statement's WHERE clause.
[condition1] OR [condition2] will be true if either condition1 or condition2 is true.

SELECT column1, column2, columnN FROM table_name WHERE [condition1] OR [condition2]...OR [conditionN]

SELECT * FROM COMPANY WHERE AGE >= 25 OR SALARY >= 65000;

Create the following tables
1. Find movies made after 1997
• select * from movies where year > 1997;

2. Find movies made by Coen after 1980

• select * FROM movies where year > 1980 and Director = "Coen";
3. Find all movies and their ratings
• SELECT Title,Rating FROM movies;

4. Find all actors and directors

• SELECT Actor from Actors UNION SELECT Director from Director;
5. Find Coen’s movies with McDormand
• SELECT Title from Acts WHERE Actor="McDormand" INTERSECT SELECT Title from movies
WHERE Director = "Coen";
Distinct
• The SELECT DISTINCT statement is used to return only
distinct (different) values.
• Inside a table, a column often contains many duplicate values;
and sometimes you only want to list the different (distinct)
values.
SELECT DISTINCT column1, column2, ... FROM
table_name;
SELECT DISTINCT name from Student;
 Not Operator
• The NOT operator displays a record if the condition(s) is NOT TRUE.
• SELECT column1, column2, ... FROM table_name WHERE NOT condition;
• SELECT * FROM Student WHERE NOT name ='Alice' AND NOT name ='Sam';
 NULL Value

• A field with a NULL value is a field with no value.

• If a field in a table is optional, it is possible to insert a new record or update a record without
adding a value to this field. Then, the field will be saved with a NULL value.
• A NULL value is different from a zero value or a field that contains spaces. A field with a NULL
value is one that has been left blank during record creation.
• It is not possible to test for NULL values with comparison operators, such as =, <, or <>.
• Have to use the IS NULL and IS NOT NULL operators instead.
IS NULL Syntax
SELECT column_names FROM table_name WHERE column_name IS NULL;
IS NOT NULL Syntax
SELECT column_names FROM table_name WHERE column_name IS NOT NULL;
• SELECT * FROM Student WHERE age IS NULL;

• SELECT * FROM Student WHERE age IS NOT NULL;

 Update

• The UPDATE statement is used to modify the existing records in a table.

• UPDATE table_name SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2, ... WHERE condition;
• UPDATE Student SET name = 'Sam David',age = '20’ WHERE student_id = 105;
 TOP, LIMIT or ROWNUM Clause

• The SELECT TOP clause is used to specify the number of records to return.
• The SELECT TOP clause is useful on large tables with thousands of records. Returning a large
number of records can impact performance.
Not all database systems support the SELECT TOP clause. MySQL supports the LIMIT clause to
select a limited number of records, while Oracle uses ROWNUM.
• SELECT * FROM Student LIMIT 3;
 MIN() and MAX() Functions

• The MIN() function returns the smallest value of the selected column.
• The MAX() function returns the largest value of the selected column.
MIN() Syntax
• SELECT MIN(column_name) FROM table_name WHERE condition;
MAX() Syntax
• SELECT MAX(column_name) FROM table_name WHERE condition;
SELECT student_id, name, MIN(age) FROM Student;
 MAX() Functions
• SELECT student_id, name, Max(age) FROM Student;
 COUNT(), AVG() and SUM() Functions
• The COUNT() function returns the number of rows that matches a specified criterion.
• The AVG() function returns the average value of a numeric column.
• The SUM() function returns the total sum of a numeric column.
COUNT() Syntax
• SELECT COUNT(column_name) FROM table_name WHERE condition;
AVG() Syntax
• SELECT AVG(column_name) FROM table_name WHERE condition;
SUM() Syntax
• SELECT SUM(column_name) FROM table_name WHERE condition;
SELECT COUNT(student_id) FROM Student;
• SELECT AVG(age) FROM Student;

• SELECT SUM(age) FROM Student;

 BETWEEN Operator

• The BETWEEN operator selects values within a given range. The values can be numbers, text, or
dates.
• The BETWEEN operator is inclusive: begin and end values are included. 
BETWEEN Syntax
• SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE column_name BETWEEN value1 AND
value2;
SELECT * FROM student WHERE age BETWEEN 16 AND 18;
 NOT BETWEEN Operator
• To display the products outside the range of the previous example, use NOT BETWEEN.
• SELECT * FROM student WHERE age NOT BETWEEN 16 AND 18;
 LIKE Operator
• The LIKE operator is used in a WHERE clause to search for a specified pattern in a column.
• There are two wildcards often used in conjunction with the LIKE operator:
• % - The percent sign represents zero, one, or multiple characters.
• _ - The underscore represents a single character.
• LIKE Syntax

• SELECT column1, column2, ... FROM table_name WHERE columnN LIKE pattern;
 LIKE Operator
• SELECT * FROM student WHERE Name LIKE 'S%’;

• SELECT * FROM student WHERE Name LIKE '%m’;

• SQL aliases are used to give a table, or a column in a table, a temporary name.
Aliases

• Aliases are often used to make column names more readable.

• An alias only exists for the duration of the query.
Alias Column Syntax
• SELECT column_name AS alias_name FROM table_name;
SELECT Student_Id AS ID, Name AS StudentName FROM student;
 Alias for Tables

• selects all the orders from the customer with CustomerID=4 (Around the Horn).
• We use the "Customers" and "Orders" tables, and give them the table aliases of "c" and "o"
respectively (Here we use aliases to make the SQL shorter).

SELECT o.OrderID, o.OrderDate, c.CustomerName FROM Customers AS c, Orders AS o WHERE

c.CustomerName='Around the Horn' AND c.CustomerID=o.CustomerID;

Without using Alias

SELECT Orders.OrderID, Orders.OrderDate, Customers.CustomerName FROM Customers, Orders

WHERE Customers.CustomerName='Around the Horn' AND
Customers.CustomerID=Orders.CustomerID;
 CASE Statement

• The CASE statement goes through conditions and returns a value when the first condition is met
(like an IF-THEN-ELSE statement).
• So, once a condition is true, it will stop reading and return the result.
• If no conditions are true, it returns the value in the ELSE clause.
• If there is no ELSE part and no conditions are true, it returns NULL.
CASE Syntax
CASE
WHEN condition1 THEN result1
WHEN condition2 THEN result2
WHEN conditionN THEN result
ELSE result
END;
 CASE Statement
SELECT orderid, quantity,
CASE
WHEN quantity > 30 THEN 'The quantity is greater than 30’
WHEN quantity = 30 THEN 'The quantity is 30’
ELSE 'The quantity is under 30’
END AS QuantityText
FROM orderdetails;
 DELETE Statement

• The DELETE statement is used to delete existing records in a table.

DELETE Syntax
• DELETE FROM table_name WHERE condition;
DELETE FROM orderdetails WHERE productid = 12;
 Delete All Records

• It is possible to delete all rows in a table without deleting the table. This means that the table
structure, attributes, and indexes will be intact.
• DELETE FROM table_name;
DELETE FROM orderdetails;
 Different Types of SQL JOINs
• (INNER) JOIN: Returns records that have matching values in both tables.

• LEFT (OUTER) JOIN: Returns all records from the left table, and the matched records from the
right table.

• RIGHT (OUTER) JOIN: Returns all records from the right table, and the matched records from
the left table.

• FULL (OUTER) JOIN: Returns all records when there is a match in either left or right table.
 JOIN

• A JOIN clause is used to combine rows from two or more tables, based on a related column
between them.
• Orders Table Customer Table

• SELECT Orders.OrderID, Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderDate FROM Orders INNER

JOIN Customers ON Orders.CustomerID=Customers.CustomerID;
 LEFT JOIN
• The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all records from the left table (table1), and the matched records from the right table
(table2). The result is NULL from the right side, if there is no match.

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1 LEFT JOIN table2 ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;

customer table order table

SELECT customers.customer_id, orders.order_id, orders.order_date FROM customers LEFT JOIN orders ON

customers.customer_id = orders.customer_id ORDER BY customers.customer_id;
 RIGHT JOIN
• The RIGHT JOIN keyword returns all records from the right table (table2), and the matched records from the left table
(table1). The result is NULL from the left side, when there is no match.
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1 RIGHT JOIN table2 ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;
orders table customers table

SELECT customers.customer_id, orders.order_id, orders.order_date FROM customers RIGHT JOIN orders ON

customers.customer_id = orders.customer_id ORDER BY customers.customer_id;
  FULL OUTER JOIN
• The FULL OUTER JOIN keyword returns all records when there is a match in left (table1) or right (table2) table records.
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1 FULL OUTER JOIN table2 ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name
WHERE condition;
Order table Customer table

SELECT customers.customer_id, orders.order_id, orders.order_date FROM customers FULL OUTER JOIN orders ON
customers.customer_id = orders.customer_id ORDER BY customers.customer_id;
 TCL -Transaction Control Languages

• TCL stands for Transaction Control Languages. These commands are used for maintaining
consistency of the database and for the management of transactions made by the DML commands.

• A Transaction is a set of SQL statements that are executed on the data stored in DBMS.

• Whenever any transaction is made these transactions are temporarily happen in database. So, to
make the changes permanent, we use TCL commands.

The TCL commands are

1. COMMIT
2. ROLLBACK
3. SAVEPOINT
 COMMIT
• This command is used to save the data permanently.
• Whenever we perform any of the DDL command like -INSERT, DELETE or UPDATE, these can
be rollback if the data is not stored permanently.
• So in order to be at the safer side COMMIT command is used.
Syntax
commit;
 ROLLBACK
• This command is used to get the data or restore the data to the last save point or last committed
state.
• If due to some reasons the data inserted, deleted or updated is not correct, you can rollback the
data to a particular save point or if save point is not done, then to the last committed state.
Syntax
rollback;
  SAVEPOINT 
• This command is used to save the data at a particular point temporarily, so that whenever needed
can be rollback to that particular point.
Syntax
Savepoint A;
 DCL - Data Control Language
• DCL stands for Data Control Language in Structured Query Language (SQL). As the name
suggests these commands are used to control privilege in the database.

• The privileges (Right to access the data) are required for performing all the database operations
like creating tables, views, or sequences.

• DCL command is a statement that is used to perform the work related to the rights, permissions,
and other control of the database system.

There are two types of Privileges in database

• System Privilege
• Object Privilege
 Commands in DCL
The two most important DCL commands are
• GRANT
• REVOKE
GRANT
• This command is used to grant permission to the user to perform a particular operation on a particular
object.
• If you are a database administrator and you want to restrict user accessibility such as one who only
views the data or may only update the data. You can give the privilege permission to the users.
Syntax
GRANT privilege_list ON Object_name TO user_name;
REVOKE
This command is used to take permission/access back from the user. If you want to return permission
from the database that you have granted to the users at that time you need to run REVOKE command.
Syntax
REVOKE privilege_list ON object_name FROM user_name;
Following commands are granted to the user as a Privilege List
• EXECUTE
• UPDATE
• SELECT
• DELETE
• ALTER
• ALL

Advantages Of DCL commands

• It allows to restrict the user from accessing data in database.
• It ensures security in database when the data is exposed to multiple users.
• It is the wholesome responsibility of the data owner or data administrator to maintain the authority of grant
and revoke privileges to the users preventing any threat to data.
• It prevents other users to make changes in database who have no access to Database