OUTLINE

INTRODUCTION
The Life-Span
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Module 1
THE LIFE SPAN
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development

PERSPECTIVE

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 OUTLINE

INTRODUCTION Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION TEXT

The Life-Span
Every life is distinct, a new biography in the world.
Perspective
Examining the shape of life-span development allows us to understand
The Nature of it better. Life-Span Development is about the rhythm and meaning of
Development people’s lives, about turning mystery into understanding, and about
Theories of weaving a portrait of who each of us was, is, and will be. This section
will discuss the 1) The Life-Span Perspective, 2) The Nature of

TITLE TEXT
Development
Development, 3) Theories of Development, 4) Research on Life-Span
Research on Life-Span Development
Development

All the world’s a stage,

And all the men and women merely players.
They have their exits and their entrances;
And one man in his time plays many parts.

—William Shakespeare
English Playwright, 17th Century

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INTRODUCTION LEARNING GOALS

TEXT
The Life-Span Topic 1: The Life-Span Perspective
Perspective Discuss the distinctive features of a life-span perspective on
development.
The Nature of
 The Importance of Studying Life-Span Development
Development  Characteristics of the Life-Span Perspective
Theories of  Some Contemporary Concerns

TITLE TEXT
Development
Research on Life-Span Topic 2: The Nature of Development
Development Identify the most important processes, periods, and issues in
development.
 Biological, Cognitive, and Socio-emotional Processes
 Periods of Development
 The Significance of Age
 Developmental Issues

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INTRODUCTION LEARNING GOALS

TEXT
The Life-Span Topic 3: Theories of Development
Perspective Describe the main theories of human development.
The Nature of  Psychoanalytic Theories
 Cognitive Theories
Development
 Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories
Theories of  Ethological Theory

TITLE TEXT
Development  Ecological Theory
Research on Life-Span  An Eclectic Theoretical Orientation
Development
Topic 4: Research on Life-Span Development
Explain how research on life-span development is conducted.
 Methods for Collecting Data
 Research Designs
 Time Span of Research
 Conducting Ethical Research
 Minimizing Bias

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Introduction
Topic 1: The Life-Span Perspective
The Life-Span
Perspective
The Nature of
Introduction
Development
Theories of Each of us develops partly like all other
Development individuals, partly like some other individuals, and partly like
no other individual. Most of the time our attention is
Research on Life-Span
directed to each individual’s uniqueness. But as humans, we
Development
have all traveled some common paths. This is the general
course of our development, the pattern of movement or
change that begins at conception and continues through the
human life span.
In this topic, we will explore what is meant by the
concept of development and why the study of life-span
development is important. We will outline the main
characteristics of the life-span perspective and discuss
various sources of contextual influences. In addition, we will
examine some contemporary concerns in life-span
development.
 TEXT
Introduction THE IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING LIFE-
The Life-Span SPAN DEVELOPMENT
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
 TEXT
Introduction CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LIFE-SPAN
The Life-Span PERSPECTIVE
Perspective
The Nature of • Although growth and development are dramatic during the first
Development two decades of life, development is not something that happens
Theories of only to children and adolescents (Kennedy & Raz, 2015). The
Development traditional approach to the study of development emphasizes
Research on Life-Span extensive change from birth to adolescence (especially during
Development infancy), little or no change in adulthood, and decline in old age.
But a great deal of change does occur in the five or six decades
after adolescence. The life-span approach emphasizes
developmental change throughout adulthood as well as
childhood (Park & Festini, 2018; Schaie & Willis, 2016).

• Life-span perspective - the perspective that development is

lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic,
multidisciplinary, and contextual; involves growth,
maintenance, and regulation; and is constructed through
biological, sociocultural, and individual factors working together.
 TEXT
Introduction CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LIFE-SPAN
The Life-Span PERSPECTIVE
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
 TEXT
Introduction CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LIFE-SPAN
The Life-Span PERSPECTIVE
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
 TEXT
Introduction CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LIFE-SPAN
The Life-Span PERSPECTIVE
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
 TEXT
Introduction CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LIFE-SPAN
The Life-Span PERSPECTIVE
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
 TEXT
Introduction CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LIFE-SPAN
The Life-Span PERSPECTIVE
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
 TEXT
Introduction CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LIFE-SPAN
The Life-Span PERSPECTIVE
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
 TEXT
Introduction CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LIFE-SPAN
The Life-Span PERSPECTIVE
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
 TEXT
Introduction
SOME CONTEMPORARY CONCERNS
The Life-Span
Perspective
The Nature of • Researchers using the life-span perspective are
Development examining many topics of contemporary concern. The
Theories of roles that health and well-being, parenting, education,
Development sociocultural contexts, and technology play in life-span
Research on Life-Span development, as well as how social policy is related to
Development these issues.
 Health and Well-Being. Health professionals today
recognize the powerful influences of lifestyles and
psychological states on health and well-being (Hales, 2018;
Rolfes, Pinna, & Whitney, 2018).
 Parenting and Education. In later chapters, we will analyze
child care, the effects of divorce, parenting styles, child
maltreatment, intergenerational relationships, early
childhood education, links between childhood poverty and
education, bilingual education, recent efforts to improve
lifelong learning, and many other issues related to
parenting and education (Gewirtz & Youssef, 2017;
Morrison, 2018).
 TEXT
Introduction
SOME CONTEMPORARY CONCERNS
The Life-Span
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
 TEXT
Introduction
SOME CONTEMPORARY CONCERNS
The Life-Span
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
 TEXT
Introduction
SOME CONTEMPORARY CONCERNS
The Life-Span
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
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Introduction
Learning Activity 1
The Life-Span
Perspective
The Nature of A. Connect
Development 1. Give your own example (not found in our discussion) of
Theories of how biology, culture, and individual experience interact to
Development affect development.
Research on Life-Span
Development
B. Reflect Your Own Personal Journey of Life
1. Imagine what your development would have been like in
a culture that offered fewer or distinctly different choices.
How might your development have been different if your
family had been significantly richer or poorer?
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Introduction
The Life-Span
Topic 2: The Nature of Development
Perspective
The Nature of
Learning Goals
Development
 Identify the most important processes, periods, and
Theories of
issues in development.
Development
 Biological, Cognitive, and Socio-emotional Processes
Research on Life-Span
Development  Periods of Development
 The Significance of Age
 Developmental Issues
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Introduction
The Life-Span
Topic 2: The Nature of Development
Perspective
The Nature of INTRODUCTION
Development In this section, we will explore what is meant by
Theories of developmental processes and periods, as well as variations
Development in the way age is conceptualized. We will examine key
Research on Life-Span developmental issues and strategies we can use to evaluate
Development them. A chronicle of the events in any person’s life can
quickly become a confusing and tedious array of details.
Two concepts help provide a framework for describing and
understanding an individual’s development: developmental
processes and periods.
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Introduction BIOLOGICAL, COGNITIVE, AND
The Life-Span SOCIOEMOTIONAL PROCESSES
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
 TEXT
Introduction BIOLOGICAL, COGNITIVE, AND
The Life-Span SOCIOEMOTIONAL PROCESSES
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
 TEXT
Introduction BIOLOGICAL, COGNITIVE, AND
The Life-Span SOCIOEMOTIONAL PROCESSES
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
 TEXT
Introduction Connecting Biological, Cognitive, and
The Life-Span Socioemotional Processes
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
 TEXT
Introduction Connecting Biological, Cognitive, and Socioemotional
The Life-Span Processes
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
 TEXT
Introduction
The Life-Span
PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development

FIGURE 7
PROCESSES AND PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT.
The unfolding of life’s periods of development is
influenced by the interaction of biological, cognitive, and
socioemotional processes.
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Introduction
The Life-Span
PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
 TEXT
Introduction
The Life-Span
PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
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Introduction
The Life-Span
PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
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Introduction
The Life-Span
PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
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Introduction
The Life-Span
PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
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Introduction
The Life-Span
PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
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Introduction
Four Ages
The Life-Span
Perspective
The Nature of Life-span developmentalists who focus on adult
Development development and aging increasingly describe life-span
Theories of development in terms of four “ages” (Baltes, 2006; Willis &
Development Schaie, 2006):
Research on Life-Span First age: Childhood and adolescence
Development Second age: Prime adulthood, ages 20 through 59
Third age: Approximately 60 to 79 years of age
Fourth age: Approximately 80 years and older

The major emphasis in this conceptualization is on

the third and fourth ages, especially the increasing evidence
that individuals in the third age are healthier and can lead
more active, productive lives than their predecessors in
earlier generations. However, when older adults reach their
eighties (fourth age), especially 85 and over, health and
well-being decline for many individuals.
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Introduction
Three Developmental Patterns of Aging
The Life-Span
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
 TEXT
Introduction
Three Developmental Patterns of Aging
The Life-Span
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
 TEXT
Introduction
The Life-Span
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF AGE
Perspective
The Nature of Which of these individuals is likely to be the happiest and to
Development report the highest level of psychological well-being?
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
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Introduction
The Life-Span
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF AGE
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
 TEXT
Introduction
Conceptions of Age
The Life-Span
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
 TEXT
Introduction
Conceptions of Age
The Life-Span
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
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Introduction
Conceptions of Age
The Life-Span
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
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Introduction
The Life-Span
DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES
Perspective
The Nature of  Nature and Nurture. The nature-nurture issue involves
Development the extent to which development is influenced by
Theories of nature and by nurture. Nature refers to an organism’s
Development biological inheritance, nurture to its environmental
Research on Life-Span experiences. According to those who emphasize the
Development role of nature, just as a sunflower grows in an orderly
way—unless flattened by an unfriendly environment—
so too the human grows in an orderly way. An
evolutionary and genetic foundation produces
commonalities in growth and development (Freedman,
2017; Starr, Evers, & Starr, 2018). Proponents of the
importance of nature acknowledge that extreme
environments— those that are psychologically barren
or hostile—can depress development. However, they
believe that basic growth tendencies are genetically
programmed into humans (Johnson, 2017).
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Introduction
The Life-Span
DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
 TEXT
Introduction
The Life-Span
DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
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Introduction
The Life-Span
DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
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Introduction
The Life-Span
DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES
Perspective
The Nature of  Continuity and Discontinuity. When developmental
Development change occurs, is it gradual or abrupt? Think about your
Theories of own development for a moment. Did you gradually
Development become the person you are today? Or did you
Research on Life-Span experience sudden, distinct changes as you matured?
Development For the most part, developmentalists who emphasize
nurture describe development as a gradual, continuous
process. Those who emphasize nature often describe
development as a series of distinct stages.The
continuity-discontinuity issue focuses on the degree to
which development involves either gradual, cumulative
change (continuity) or distinct stages (discontinuity). In
terms of continuity, a child’s first word, though
seemingly an abrupt, discontinuous event, is actually
the result of weeks and months of growth and practice.
Puberty might seem abrupt, but it is a gradual process
that occurs over several years.
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Introduction
The Life-Span
DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES
Perspective
The Nature of In terms of discontinuity, as an insect grows from a
Development caterpillar to a chrysalis to a butterfly, it passes
Theories of through a sequence of stages in which change is
Development qualitatively rather than quantitatively different.
Research on Life-Span Similarly, at some point a child moves from not being
Development able to think abstractly about the world to being able
to do so. This is a qualitative, discontinuous change in
development rather than a quantitative, continuous
change.
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Introduction
Evaluating the Developmental Issues
The Life-Span
Perspective
The Nature of Most life-span developmentalists acknowledge
Development that development is not all nature or all nurture, not all
Theories of stability or all change, and not all continuity or all
Development discontinuity. Nature and nurture, stability and change,
Research on Life-Span continuity and discontinuity characterize development
Development throughout the human life span. Although most
developmentalists do not take extreme positions on these
three important issues, there is spirited debate regarding
how strongly development is influenced by each of these
factors (Almy & Cicchetti, 2018; Moore, 2017).
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Introduction
The Life-Span
Learning Activity 2
Perspective
The Nature of Connect
Development 1. In the previous section, we discussed biological,
Theories of cognitive, and socioemotional processes. What concepts do
Development these processes have in common with the issue of nature
Research on Life-Span versus nurture, which was also discussed in this section?
Development
Reflect
Your Own Personal Journey of Life
1. Do you think there was/is/will be a best age for you to
be? If so, what isit? Why?
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Introduction Topic 3: Theories of
The Life-Span
Perspective
Development
The Nature of Learning Goal
Development
 Describe the main theories of human development.
Theories of
Development  Psychoanalytic Theories
 Cognitive Theories
Research on Life-Span
Development  Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories
 Ethological Theory
 Ecological Theory
 An Eclectic Theoretical Orientation
 TEXT
Introduction Topic 3: Theories of
The Life-Span
Perspective
Development
The Nature of INTRODUCTION
Development How can we answer questions about the roles of nature
Theories of and nurture, stability and change, and continuity and discontinuity
Development in development? The scientific method is the best tool we have to
answer such questions (Smith & Davis, 2016). The scientific
Research on Life-Span method is essentially a four-step process: (1) conceptualize a
Development process or problem to be studied, (2) collect research information
(data), (3) analyze the data, and (4) draw conclusions. In step 1,
when researchers are formulating a problem to study, they often
draw on theories and develop hypotheses. A theory is an
interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps to explain
phenomena and facilitate predictions. It may suggest hypotheses,
which are specific assertions and predictions that can be tested.
This section outlines key aspects of five theoretical
orientations to development: psychoanalytic, cognitive, behavioral
and social cognitive, ethological, and ecological. Each contributes
an important piece to the life-span development puzzle.
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Introduction
The Life-Span PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
 TEXT
Introduction
The Life-Span PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
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Introduction
The Life-Span PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
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Introduction
The Life-Span PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
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Introduction
The Life-Span PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES
Perspective
The Nature of In Erikson’s theory, eight stages of development
Development unfold as we go through life. At each stage, a unique
Theories of developmental task confronts individuals with a crisis that
Development must be resolved. According to Erikson, this crisis is not a
Research on Life-Span catastrophe but a turning point marked by both increased
Development vulnerability and enhanced potential. The more successfully
an individual resolves each crisis, the healthier development
will be.
 Trust versus mistrust is Erikson’s first psychosocial stage,
which is experienced in the first year of life. The
development of trust during infancy sets the stage for a
lifelong expectation that the world will be a good and
pleasant place to live.
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Introduction
The Life-Span PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES
Perspective
The Nature of  Autonomy versus shame and doubt is Erikson’s second
Development stage. This stage occurs in late infancy and toddlerhood (1
to 3 years). After gaining trust in their caregivers, infants
Theories of
begin to discover that their behavior is their own. They
Development start to assert their sense of independence or autonomy.
Research on Life-Span They realize their will. If infants and toddlers are restrained
Development too much or punished too harshly, they are likely to
develop a sense of shame and doubt.

 Initiative versus guilt, Erikson’s third stage of

development, occurs during the preschool years. As
preschool children encounter a widening social world, they
face new challenges that require active, purposeful,
responsible behavior. Feelings of guilt may arise, though, if
the child is irresponsible and is made to feel too anxious.
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Introduction
The Life-Span PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES
Perspective
The Nature of
Development  Industry versus inferiority is Erikson’s fourth
Theories of developmental stage, occurring approximately during the
Development elementary school years. Children now need to direct their
energy toward mastering knowledge and intellectual skills.
Research on Life-Span The negative outcome is that the child may develop a sense
Development of inferiority— feeling incompetent and unproductive.

 During the adolescent years, individuals need to find out

who they are, what they are all about, and where they are
going in life. This is Erikson’s fifth developmental stage,
identity versus identity confusion. If adolescents explore
roles in a healthy manner and arrive at a positive path to
follow in life, then they achieve a positive identity; if they
do not, identity confusion reigns.
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Introduction
The Life-Span PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES
Perspective
The Nature of  Intimacy versus isolation is Erikson’s sixth developmental stage,
Development which individuals experience during early adulthood. At this time,
individuals face the developmental task of forming intimate
Theories of relationships. If young adults form healthy friendships and an
Development intimate relationship with another, intimacy will be achieved; if
Research on Life-Span not, isolation will result.
Development
 Generativity versus stagnation, Erikson’s seventh developmental
stage, occurs during middle adulthood. By generativity Erikson
means primarily a concern for helping the younger generation to
develop and lead useful lives. The feeling of having done nothing
to help the next generation is stagnation.

 Integrity versus despair is Erikson’s eighth and final stage of

development, which individuals experience in late adulthood.
During this stage, a person reflects on the past. If the person’s life
review reveals a life well spent, integrity will be achieved; if not,
the retrospective glances likely will yield doubt or gloom—the
despair Erikson described.
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Introduction
The Life-Span PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
 TEXT
Introduction
The Life-Span
Evaluating Psychoanalytic Theories
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
 TEXT
Introduction
The Life-Span COGNITIVE THEORIES
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
 TEXT
Introduction
The Life-Span COGNITIVE THEORIES
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
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Introduction
The Life-Span COGNITIVE THEORIES
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
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Introduction
The Life-Span COGNITIVE THEORIES
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
 TEXT
Introduction
The Life-Span COGNITIVE THEORIES
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
 TEXT
Introduction
The Life-Span COGNITIVE THEORIES
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
 TEXT
Introduction
The Life-Span COGNITIVE THEORIES
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
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Introduction
The Life-Span COGNITIVE THEORIES
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
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Introduction
The Life-Span COGNITIVE THEORIES
Perspective
The Nature of The information-processing approach often uses
Development the computer as an analogy to help explain the connection
Theories of between cognition and the brain (Radvansky & Ashcraft,
Development 2018). They describe the physical brain as the computer’s
hardware, and cognition as its software. In this analogy, the
Research on Life-Span
sensory and perceptual systems provide an “input channel,”
Development
similar to the way data are entered into the computer. As
input (information) comes into the mind, mental processes,
or operations, act on it, just as the computer’s software acts
on the data. The transformed input generates information
that remains in memory much in the way a computer stores
what it has worked on. Finally, the information is retrieved
from memory and “printed out” or “displayed” (so to speak)
as an observable response.
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Introduction
The Life-Span
Evaluating Cognitive Theories
Perspective
The Nature of
Contributions of cognitive theories include a
Development
positive view of development and an emphasis on the active
Theories of
construction of understanding. Criticisms include skepticism
Development
about the pureness of Piaget’s stages and too little attention
Research on Life-Span to individual variations.
Development
 TEXT
Introduction BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL COGNITIVE
The Life-Span THEORIES
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
 TEXT
Introduction BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL COGNITIVE
The Life-Span THEORIES
Perspective
The Nature of
Development In Skinner’s (1938) view, such rewards and
Theories of punishments shape development. For Skinner the key aspect
Development of development is behavior, not thoughts and feelings. He
Research on Life-Span emphasized that development consists of the pattern of
Development behavioral changes that are brought about by rewards and
punishments. For example, Skinner would say that shy
people learned to be shy as a result of experiences they had
while growing up. It follows that modifications in an
environment can help a shy person become more socially
oriented.
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Introduction BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL COGNITIVE
The Life-Span THEORIES
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
 TEXT
Introduction BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL COGNITIVE
The Life-Span THEORIES
Perspective
The Nature of
Development Social cognitive theorists stress that people
acquire a wide range of behaviors, thoughts, and feelings
Theories of
through observing others’ behavior and that these
Development
observations play a central role in lifespan development.
Research on Life-Span What is cognitive about observational learning in
Development Bandura’s view? He proposes that people cognitively
represent the behavior of others and then sometimes adopt
this behavior themselves. Bandura’s (2004, 2010a, b, 2012,
2015) most recent model of learning and development
includes three elements: behavior, the person/ cognition,
and the environment. An individual’s confidence in being
able to control his or her success is an example of a person
factor; strategies are an example of a cognitive factor.
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Introduction Evaluating Behavioral and Social Cognitive
The Life-Span Theories
Perspective
The Nature of Contributions of the behavioral and social
Development cognitive theories include an emphasis on scientific research
Theories of and environmental determinants of behavior. Criticisms
Development include too little emphasis on cognition in Skinner’s theory
and inadequate attention paid to developmental changes.
Research on Life-Span
Development
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Introduction
The Life-Span
ETHOLOGICAL THEORY
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
 TEXT
Introduction
The Life-Span ETHOLOGICAL THEORY
Perspective
The Nature of
Development However, those in the second group, which saw Lorenz
Theories of when they first hatched, followed him everywhere, as
Development though he were their mother. Lorenz marked the goslings
and then placed both groups under a box. Mother goose and
Research on Life-Span
“mother” Lorenz stood aside as the box was lifted. Each
Development
group of goslings went directly to its “mother.” Lorenz called
this process imprinting—the rapid, innate learning that
involves attachment to the first moving object seen.
 TEXT
Introduction
The Life-Span ETHOLOGICAL THEORY
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
 TEXT
Introduction
The Life-Span
Evaluating Ethological Theory
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
 TEXT
Introduction
The Life-Span ECOLOGICAL THEORY
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
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Introduction
The Life-Span ECOLOGICAL THEORY
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
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Introduction
The Life-Span ECOLOGICAL THEORY
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
 TEXT
Introduction
The Life-Span ECOLOGICAL THEORY
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
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Introduction
The Life-Span ECOLOGICAL THEORY
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
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Introduction
The Life-Span
Evaluating Ecological Theory
Perspective
The Nature of Contributions of ecological theory include a systematic
Development examination of macro and micro dimensions of
Theories of environmental systems, and attention to connections
Development between environmental systems. A further contribution of
Bronfenbrenner’s theory is an emphasis on a range of social
Research on Life-Span
contexts beyond the family, such as neighborhood, religion,
Development
school, and workplace, as influential in children’s
development (Shelton, 2018). Criticisms include inadequate
attention to biological factors, as well as too little emphasis
on cognitive factors.
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Introduction AN ECLECTIC THEORETICAL
The Life-Span ORIENTATION
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
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Introduction AN ECLECTIC THEORETICAL
The Life-Span ORIENTATION
Perspective
The Nature of In short, although theories are helpful guides,
Development relying on a single theory to explain development is
Theories of probably a mistake. Instead, it is best to take an eclectic
Development theoretical orientation, which does not follow any one
theoretical approach but rather selects from each theory
Research on Life-Span
whatever is considered its best features. In this way, you can
Development
view the study of development as it actually exists—with
different theorists making different assumptions, stressing
different empirical problems, and using different strategies
to discover information.
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Introduction
The Life-Span
Perspective Comparison of the Main Theoretical Perspectives in
The Nature of Terms of how They View Important Issues in Lifespan
Development Development.
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
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Introduction
The Life-Span Learning Activity 3
Perspective
The Nature of Connect
Development The beginning of this section started with a question about
Theories of whether special care might be able to repair the harm
Development inflicted by child neglect. How might this question be
Research on Life-Span answered differently using the various theories outlined?
Development
Reflect Your Own Personal Journey of Life
Which of the life-span theories do you think best explains
your own development? Why?
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Introduction Topic 4: Research on Life-Span
The Life-Span Development
Perspective
The Nature of Learnings Goals
Development
 Explain how research on life-span development is
Theories of conducted.
Development  Methods for Collecting Data
Research on Life-Span  Research Designs
Development
 Time Span of Research
 Conducting Ethical Research
 Minimizing Bias
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Introduction Topic 4: Research on Life-Span
The Life-Span Development
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
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Introduction
The Life-Span
METHODS FOR COLLECTING DATA
Perspective
The Nature of  Observation Scientific observation requires an
Development important set of skills. For observations to be effective,
Theories of they have to be systematic. Where should we make our
Development observations? We have two choices: the laboratory and
Research on Life-Span the everyday world. When we observe scientifically, we
Development often need to control certain factors that determining
behavior but are not the focus of our inquiry (Leary,
2017). For this reason, some research on life-span
development is conducted in a laboratory, a controlled
setting where many of the complex factors of the “real
world” are absent. Laboratory research does have some
drawbacks, however, including the following:
 It is almost impossible to conduct research without the
participants knowing they are being studied.
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Introduction
The Life-Span
METHODS FOR COLLECTING DATA
Perspective
The Nature of  The laboratory setting is unnatural and therefore can cause
Development the participants to behave unnaturally.
Theories of  People who are willing to come to a university laboratory
Development may not accurately represent groups from diverse cultural
backgrounds.
Research on Life-Span
 People who are unfamiliar with university settings and
Development with the idea of “helping science” may be intimidated by
the laboratory setting.

Naturalistic observation provides insights that sometimes

cannot be attained in the laboratory (Babbie, 2017).
Naturalistic observation means observing behavior in real-
world settings, making no effort to manipulate or control
the situation. Life-span researchers conduct naturalistic
observations at sporting events, child-care centers, work
settings, malls, and other places people live in and frequent.
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Introduction
The Life-Span
METHODS FOR COLLECTING DATA
Perspective
The Nature of  Survey and Interview Sometimes the best and quickest
Development way to get information about people is to ask them for
Theories of it. One technique is to interview them directly. A related
Development method is the survey which is especially useful when
Research on Life-Span information from many people is needed. A standard set
Development of questions is used to obtain peoples’ self-reported
attitudes or beliefs about a particular topic. In a good
survey, the questions are clear and unbiased, allowing
respondents to answer unambiguously. Surveys and
interviews may be conducted in person, over the
telephone, and over the Internet. One problem with
surveys and interviews is the tendency of participants to
answer questions in a way that they think is socially
acceptable or desirable rather than to say what they
truly think or feel (Madill, 2012).
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Introduction
The Life-Span
METHODS FOR COLLECTING DATA
Perspective
The Nature of  Standardized Test A standardized test has uniform
Development procedures for administration and scoring. Many
Theories of standardized tests allow a person’s performance to be
Development compared with that of other individuals; thus they
Research on Life-Span provide information about individual differences among
Development people (Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 2018). One criticism of
standardized tests is that they assume a person’s
behavior is consistent and stable, yet personality and
intelligence—two primary targets of standardized
testing—can vary with the situation.
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Introduction
The Life-Span
METHODS FOR COLLECTING DATA
Perspective
The Nature of  Case Study A case study is an in-depth look at a single
Development individual. It provides information about one person’s
Theories of experiences; it may focus on nearly any aspect of the
Development subject’s life that helps the researcher understand the
Research on Life-Span person’s mind, behavior, or other attributes (Yin, 2012).
Development A researcher may gather information for a case study
from interviews and medical records. A case study can
provide a dramatic, in-depth portrayal of an individual’s
life, but we must be cautious when generalizing from
this information. The subject of a case study is unique,
with a genetic makeup and personal history that no one
else shares. In addition, case studies involve judgments
of unknown reliability. Researchers who conduct case
studies rarely check to see if other professionals agree
with their observations or findings.
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Introduction
The Life-Span
METHODS FOR COLLECTING DATA
Perspective
The Nature of  Physiological Measures Researchers are increasingly
Development using physiological measures when they study
Theories of development at different points in the life span (Bell &
Development others, 2018). Hormone levels are increasingly used in
Research on Life-Span developmental research. Another physiological measure
Development that is increasingly being used is neuroimaging,
especially functional magnetic resonance imaging
(fMRI), in which electromagnetic waves are used to
construct images of a person’s brain tissue and
biochemical activity (Park & Festini, 2018; Sullivan &
Wilson, 2018). Electroencephalography (EEG) is a
physiological measure that has been used for
manydecades to monitor overall electrical activity in the
brain (Najjar & Brooker, 2017).
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Introduction
The Life-Span
METHODS FOR COLLECTING DATA
Perspective
The Nature of  Heart rate has been used as an indicator of infants’
Development and children’s development of perception, attention,
Theories of and memory (Kim, Yang, & Lee, 2015). Researchers
Development study eye movement to learn more about perceptual
Research on Life-Span development and other developmental topics.
Development Sophisticated eye-tracking equipment is especially
being used to discover more detailed information
about infants’ perception (Boardman & Fletcher-
Watson, 2017), attention (Meng, Uto, & Hashiya,
2017), autism (Finke, Wilkinson, & Hickerson, 2017),
and preterm birth effects on language development
(Loi & others, 2017).
 Yet another dramatic change in physiological
methods is the advancement in methods to assess
the actual units of hereditary information—genes—
in studies of biological influences on development
(Xing & others, 2018).
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Introduction
The Life-Span
RESEARCH DESIGNS
Perspective
The Nature of  Descriptive Research All of the data-collection methods
Development that we have discussed can be used in descriptive
Theories of research, which aims to observe and record behavior.
Development For example, a researcher might observe the extent to
Research on Life-Span which people are altruistic or aggressive toward each
Development other. By itself, descriptive research cannot prove what
causes some phenomenon, but it can reveal important
information about people’s behavior (Gravetter &
Forzano, 2017).
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Introduction
The Life-Span
RESEARCH DESIGNS
Perspective
The Nature of  Correlational Research In contrast with descriptive
Development research, correlational research goes beyond describing
Theories of phenomena to provide information that will help us to
Development predict how people will behave (Gravetter & Forzano,
Research on Life-Span 2017). In correlational research, the goal is to describe
Development the strength of the relationship between two or more
events or characteristics. The more strongly the two
events are correlated (or related or associated), the
more accurately we can predict one event from the
other (Aron, Aron, & Coups, 2017).
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Introduction
The Life-Span
RESEARCH DESIGNS
Perspective
The Nature of  Experimental Research To study causality, researchers
Development turn to experimental research. An experiment is a
Theories of carefully regulated procedure in which one or more
Development factors believed to influence the behavior being studied
Research on Life-Span are manipulated while all other factors are held
Development constant. If the behavior under study changes when a
factor is manipulated, we say that the manipulated
factor has caused the behavior to change. In other
words, the experiment has demonstrated cause and
effect. The cause is the factor that was manipulated. The
effect is the behavior that changed because of the
manipulation. Non-experimental research methods
(descriptive and correlational research) cannot establish
cause and effect because they do not involve
manipulating factors in a controlled way.
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Introduction
The Life-Span
RESEARCH DESIGNS
Perspective
The Nature of  Independent and Dependent Variables Experiments
Development include two types of changeable factors, or variables:
independent and dependent. An independent variable is a
Theories of
manipulated, influential, experimental factor. It is a
Development potential cause. The label “independent” is used because
Research on Life-Span this variable can be manipulated independently of other
Development factors to determine its effect. An experiment may include
one independent variable or several of them. A dependent
variable is a factor that can change in an experiment, in
response to changes in the independent variable. As
researchers manipulate the independent variable, they
measure the dependent variable for any resulting effect.
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Introduction
The Life-Span
RESEARCH DESIGNS
Perspective
The Nature of  Experimental and Control Groups Experiments can involve
Development one or more experimental groups and one or more control
groups (Gravetter & Forzano, 2017). An experimental
Theories of
group is a group whose experience is manipulated. A
Development control group is a comparison group that is as similar to
Research on Life-Span the experimental group as possible and that is treated in
Development every way like the experimental group except for the
manipulated factor (independent variable). The control
group serves as a baseline against which the effects of the
manipulated condition can be compared.
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Introduction
The Life-Span
TIME SPAN OF RESEARCH
Perspective
The Nature of  Cross-Sectional Approach The cross-sectional approach
Development is a research strategy that simultaneously compares
Theories of individuals of different ages. A typical cross-sectional
Development study might include three groups of children: 5-year-
Research on Life-Span olds, 8-year-olds, and 11-year-olds. The groups can be
Development compared with respect to a variety of dependent
variables: IQ, memory, peer relations, attachment to
parents, hormonal changes, and so on. All of this can be
accomplished in a short time. The main advantage of the
cross-sectional study is that the researcher does not
have to wait for the individuals to grow up or become
older. Despite its efficiency, though, the cross-sectional
approach has its drawbacks. It gives no information
about how individuals change or about the stability of
their characteristics. It can obscure the increases and
decreases of development—the hills and valleys of
growth and development.
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Introduction
The Life-Span
TIME SPAN OF RESEARCH
Perspective
The Nature of  Longitudinal Approach The longitudinal approach is a
Development research strategy in which the same individuals are
Theories of studied over a period of time, usually several years or
Development more. Longitudinal studies provide a wealth of
Research on Life-Span information about vital issues such as stability and
Development change in development and the influence of early
experience on later development, but they do have
drawbacks (Almy & Cicchetti, 2018). They are expensive
and time-consuming. The longer the study lasts, the
more participants drop out—they move, get sick, lose
interest, and so forth. The participants who remain may
be dissimilar to those who drop out, biasing the
outcome of the study. Those individuals who remain in a
longitudinal study over a number of years may be more
responsible and conformity-oriented, for example, or
they might lead more stable lives.
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Introduction
The Life-Span
TIME SPAN OF RESEARCH
Perspective
The Nature of  Cohort Effects A cohort is a group of people who are born
Development at a similar point in history and share similar experiences
as a result.These shared experiences may produce a range
Theories of
of differences among cohorts (Ganguli, 2017; Messerlian &
Development Basso, 2018; Schaie, 2016a, b). For example, people who
Research on Life-Span were teenagers during the Great Depression are likely to
Development differ from people who were teenagers during the
booming 1990s in regard to their educational
opportunities and economic status, how they were raised,
and their attitudes toward sex and religion. In life-span
development research, cohort effects are due to a person’s
time of birth, era, or generation but not to actual age.
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Introduction
The Life-Span
TIME SPAN OF RESEARCH
Perspective
The Nature of
Development
Theories of
Development
Research on Life-Span
Development
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Introduction
The Life-Span
CONDUCTING ETHICAL RESEARCH
Perspective
The Nature of Ethics in research may affect you personally if you
Development ever serve as a participant in a study. In that event, you
Theories of need to know your rights as a participant and the
Development responsibilities of researchers to assure that these rights are
Research on Life-Span safeguarded.
Development Today, proposed research at colleges and
universities must pass the scrutiny of a research ethics
committee before the research can be initiated (Kazdin,
2017; Leary, 2017). In addition, the American Psychological
Association (APA) has developed ethics guidelines for its
members. The code of ethics instructs psychologists to
protect their participants from mental and physical harm.
The participants’ best interests need to be kept foremost in
the researcher’s mind. APA’s guidelines address four
important issues
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Introduction
The Life-Span
CONDUCTING ETHICAL RESEARCH
Perspective
The Nature of 1.Informed consent. All participants must know what their
Development research participation will involve and what risks might
Theories of develop. Even after informed consent is given, participants
Development must retain the right to withdraw from the study at any
Research on Life-Span time and for any reason.
Development
2. Confidentiality. Researchers are responsible for keeping
all of the data they gather on individuals completely
confidential and, when possible, completely anonymous.
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Introduction
The Life-Span
CONDUCTING ETHICAL RESEARCH
Perspective
The Nature of 3. Debriefing. After the study has been completed,
Development participants should be informed of its purpose and the
Theories of methods that were used. In most cases, the experimenter
Development also can inform participants in a general manner
Research on Life-Span beforehand about the purpose of the research without
Development leading participants to behave in a way they think that the
experimenter is expecting.

4. Deception. In some circumstances, telling the participants

beforehand what the research study is about substantially
alters the participants’ behavior and invalidates the
researcher’s data. In all cases of deception, however, the
psychologist must ensure that the deception will not harm
the participants and that the participants will be debriefed
(told the complete nature of the study) as soon as possible
after the study is completed.
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Introduction
The Life-Span
MINIMIZING BIAS
Perspective
The Nature of Studies of life-span development are most useful
Development when they are conducted without bias or prejudice toward
Theories of any particular group of people. Of special concern is bias
Development based on gender and bias based on culture or ethnicity.
Research on Life-Span
Development  Gender Bias For most of its existence, our society
has had a strong gender bias, a preconceived notion
about the abilities of women and men that
prevented individuals from pursuing their own
interests and achieving their potential (Brannon,
2017; Helgeson, 2017). Gender bias also has had a
less obvious effect within the field of life-span
development. For example, it is not unusual for
conclusions to be drawn about females’ attitudes
and behaviors from research conducted with males
as the only participants
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Introduction
The Life-Span
CONDUCTING ETHICAL RESEARCH
Perspective
The Nature of  Cultural and Ethnic Bias Today there is a growing
Development realization that research on lifespan development
Theories of needs to include more people from diverse ethnic
Development groups (Nieto & Bode, 2018). Researchers also have
Research on Life-Span tended to overgeneralize about ethnic groups
Development (Schaefer, 2015). Ethnic gloss is using an ethnic label
such as African American or Latino in a superficial
way that portrays an ethnic group as being more
homogeneous than it really is (Trimble, 1988).
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Introduction
The Life-Span Learning Activity 4
Perspective
The Nature of Connect
Development
Earlier in the chapter, you read about normative age-graded
Theories of influences, normative history-graded influences, and non-
Development normative life events. Describe how these influences relate
Research on Life-Span to what you just read about cohort effects.
Development
Reflect Your Own Personal Journey of Life
You and your parents grew up at different points in time.
Consider some ways that you are different from your
parents. Do you think some of your differences might be
due to cohort effects? Explain.