ELECTRODYNAMICS

MAXWELL EQUATIONS &

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
 Scalar and Vector Field
 A field is a spatial distribution of a quantity; in general, it can be
either scalar or vector in nature.

 Region in space, every point of which is characterized by a scalar quantity is

known as scalar field.
 An example of a scalar field in electromagnetism is the electric potential.
Other examples include temperature field, pressure field , gravitational
potential etc.

 Region in space, each point of which is characterized by a vector quantity is

known as vector field.
 Examples of vector field are electric field, gravitation field,
magnetic field , magnetic potential etc.
 Del Operator

 The operators are mathematical tools or prescriptions.

The operators have no direct physical meaning. However,
they acquire significance when operated upon another
function.
 The del operator is the vector differential operator,
 Represented by


Note: DEL operator is not a vector quantity in itself, but it may operate
on various scalar or vector fields.
Gradient
 Physical Significance of
Gradient
The gradient is a fancy word for derivative, or the rate of
change of a function. It’s a vector that points in the direction
of greatest increase of a function
 Physical Significance ???

Thus the rate of change of Φ in the direction of a unit vector a is the

component of grad Φ in the direction of a (i.e. the projection of grad
Φ onto a ). The maximum value of the directional derivative occurs
when the directional vector a coincides with the direction of grad Φ.
Thus the directional derivative achieves its maximum in the direction
of the normal to the level surface Φ(x, y, z) = c at P.

 Then small change in scalar field as we alter all three variables

by small amount dx, dy and dz is given by fundamental
theorem of partial derivative, i.e.
Divergence
Physical Significance
 Divergence represents the volume density of the
outward flux of a vector field from an infinitesimal
volume around a given point

 The divergence of vector field A is defined as the net

outward flux per unit volume over a closed surface S.

 The div. A at a point is measure of how much the vector A

spread outs.
If Divergence of vector field is zero , then
it is also termed Solenoidal Field
 Curl
Physical Significance of Curl:
The maximum value of the
circulation density evaluated at a
point in the vector field is known
as curl of vector field

The rotation with maximum value is known as curl and is a vector quantity.
Thus curl of vector field signifies the whirling nature or circulation of the
vector field (A) around any point O.

The direction of the curl is the axis

of rotation, as determined by the
right-hand rule, and the magnitude
of the curl is the magnitude of
rotation
Conservative Fields

 For a conservative vector field ,

CURL IS ZERO
 The curl of a vector field is defined as the vector field
having magnitude equal to the maximum "circulation" at
each point and to be oriented perpendicularly to this
plane of circulation for each point.
 The magnitude of Curl is the limiting value of circulation
per unit area.
 Curl is simply the circulation per unit area, circulation
density, or rate of rotation (amount of twisting at a single
point).
 To be technical, curl is a vector, which means it has a both a
magnitude and a direction. The magnitude is simply the
amount of twisting force at a point.
 The direction is a little more tricky: it's the orientation of the
axis of your paddlewheel in order to get maximum rotation.
In other words, it is the direction which will give you the
most "free work" from the field. Imagine putting your
paddlewheel sideways in the whirlpool - it wouldn't turn at
all. If you put it in the proper direction, it begins turning.
Gauss Divergence Theorem
 This Theorem helps to transform a surface integral into
volume integral.
 It states that the surface integral of any vector field
through a closed surface is equal to volume integral of
the divergence of vector field taken over the volume
enclosed by the closed surface.
Mathematically,
 Numerical
Given that r⃗ is a
position vector. Using
Gauss’s divergence
theorem find the value
⃗of ∯ ⃗ ⃗ . ⃗ .
Stoke’s Theorem

 It states that line integral of the tangential component of

a vector field A over a closed path is equal to the surface
integral of the normal component of the curl A on the
surface enclosed by path.

 Mathematically,
 Numerical

If r⃗ is a position
vector of a point in
space, then prove
⃗that ∮⃗⃗ ⃗ . ⃗ = 0
 Numerical

Prove that 𝐴⃗ = 𝑦𝑧𝑖ˆ + 𝑥𝑧𝑗ˆ

+ 𝑥𝑦𝑘ˆ is both irrotational
and solenoidal
 If F=3x^2 y-y^ 3 z^ 2 , find the
value of gradient of the
function F at point (1, -2, -1).
 Green’s Theorem
 Green's theorem gives the relationship between a line
integral around a simple closed curve C and a double integral
over the plane region D bounded by C. 
 If L and M are functions of (x, y) defined on an open region
containing D and having continuous partial derivatives there,
then
 Mathematically
M L
C Ldx  Mdy D ( x  y )dxdy

 * Note: Here curve C has a positive orientation if it is traced out in a counter-

clockwise direction
Continuity Equation
 Maxwell’s equations
Maxwell's equations are a set of James Clerk Maxwell, one of the
partial differential equations that, world's greatest physicists, was
together with the Lorentz force law, Professor of Natural Philosophy at
form the foundation of King's from 1860 to 1865. It was
classical electrodynamics, classical during this period that he
optics, and electric circuits. These demonstrated that magnetism,
electricity and light were different
fields in turn underlie modern
manifestations of the same
electrical and communications fundamental laws, and described all
technologies. Maxwell's equations these, as well as radio waves, radar,
describe how electric and and radiant heat, through his unique
magnetic fields are generated and and elegant system of equations.
altered by each other and by charges These calculations were crucial to
and currents. They are named after Albert Einstein in his production of
the physicist and mathematician the theory of relativity 40 years later,
James Clerk Maxwell, who published and led Einstein to comment that
'One scientific epoch ended and
an early form of those equations
another began with James Clerk
between 1861 and 1862. Maxwell'.
Maxwell’s equations
 Maxwell's four equations describe the electric and magnetic fields arising
from distributions of electric charges and currents, and how those fields
change in time.
 They were the mathematical distillation of decades of experimental
observations of the electric and magnetic effects of charges and currents,
plus the profound intuition of Michael Faraday.
 Maxwell's own contribution to these equations is just the last term of the
last equation -- but the addition of that term had dramatic consequences.
It made evident for the first time that varying electric and magnetic fields
could feed off each other -- these fields could propagate indefinitely
through space, far from the varying charges and currents where they
originated.
 Previously these fields had been envisioned as tethered to the charges and
currents giving rise to them. Maxwell's new term (called the displacement
current) freed them to move through space in a self-sustaining fashion, and
even predicted their velocity -- it was the velocity of light!
Maxwell’s equations
Maxwell 1st Equation:
Significance
Maxwell 2nd Equation:
Maxwell 3rd Equation:
According to Faraday’s law, is the Magnetic Flux within a
circuit, and EMF is the electro-
motive force

Significance of Maxwell’s third

equation
(i) It summarizes the Faraday’s
Also, law of electromagnetic
induction.
(ii) This equation relates the
space variation of electric field
with time variation of magnetic
field
(iii) It is time dependent
differential equation.
(iv) It proves that the electric
field can be generated by
change in magnetic field
Maxwell 4th Equation:
According to Ampere’s Law

Maxwell realized that the definition of the total

current density is incomplete and suggested to
add another term
Significance of Maxwell’s fourth equation
(i) It summarizes the modified form of
Ampere’s ciruital law.
(ii) It is time dependent differential equation.
(iii) Maxwell’s fourth equation relates the
space variation of magnetic
field with time variation of electric field
(iv) It also proves that magnetic field can be
generated by changing electric field
PROPAGATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE IN FREE SPACE
The Maxwell’s equation for free space (=0 and J=0) can be written as
What , why & How??????
 Define : Curl, Divergence &  Derive differential Maxwell
Gradient equations. Also write their
 Explain the physical significance: physical significances.
Curl, Divergence & Gradient  Derive the equations for
 Write the expression for Del- electromagnetic wave
operator propagation in free space using
Maxwell equations, and hence
 Write continuity equation and its calculate the value of c (velocity of
physical significance light).
 Derive an equation which  Write Stoke’s and Divergence’
express conservation of charge in theorems.
a localized volume.  What are the conditions for
 Write Maxwell equations in both irrotational, solenoidal and
differential and integral form conservative fields, resp.?