UNIT 2 – HORIZONTAL DISTANCE

MEASUREMENTS
Principles of Measuring Distances

 Two points form a line (a).

 The shortest distance between two points is a straight line (b).
 Methods of Measuring Horizontal Distances

Horizontal distances can be measured by the following methods:

 Pacing
 Odometer
 Chaining/Taping
 Stadia (or tacheometry)
 Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM)
 Global Positioning System (GPS)
Pacing is measuring distance by counting the steps (paces). With practice, error is about 2% of
distance paced.
Distance = No of paces x PF
Where D= Distance measured and PF – Pace factor
 Advantages:
• Simple
• No specialized equipment is required

 Disadvantages:
• Requires practice to take a consistent pace
• Topography affects accuracy
• Traversing is difficult by using this method
• Only measures slope distance
 Odometer Wheel
An odometer is a mechanical revolution counter. An odometer wheel counts the rotations of the wheel
using an odometer. The gear ratio of the odometer is designed to provide the measurement of the distance.
Error is about 1% of the distance measured.
 Advantages:
• Easy to use
• Distance can be measured by only one person 
 Disadvantages: 
• Accuracy is influenced by surface conditions
• Traversing is difficult by using this method
• Only measures slope distances
Chaining/Taping

• An engineer’s chain (100 feet long) is used traditionally to measure distances. Nowadays, steel
tapes are available in both metric and English units.

• Generally 20 m and 30 m tape/chains are used for surveying.

 Advantages:
• High precision (error is only about 0.1% of distance)
• Can be used to measure horizontal distances
 Disadvantages:
• Needs more people
• Must have clear, traversable route
• High precision needs some tape corrections
Accessories used in taping
 Composition of the taping party

• Head tape man

• Recorder
• Flagman
• Rear tape man
 Procedure of taping
 Aligning the tape
 Stretching the tape
 Plumbing
 Making full tape lengths
 Tallying taped measurements
 Measuring fractional lengths
 Definitions and Illustrations in Horizontal Measurements

 Survey Stations:Survey stations are the points at the beginning and the end of a chain line. It can be classified as i. Main
stations, ii. Subsidiary stations and iii. Tie stations.
• Main station: Stations taken along the boundary of an area as controlling points are known as main stations. The main stations
are denoted with letters A, B, C, D etc in the fig given below.
• Subsidiary stations: Stations which are on the main survey lines is called as subsidiary stations. These stations are taken to run
subsidiary lines for dividing the area into triangles. These stations are denoted with the letters S 1, S2, S3 etc.
• Tie stations: Lines joining the tie stations are known as tie lines. Tie lines are introduced where it is necessary to run auxiliary
lines to locate interior details such as corner, tree, building etc.
b. Base Line: The line on which the framework of the survey is built is known as the ‘base line’. In general, the longest
of the main survey lines is considered the base line.
c. Check line: The line joining the apex point of a triangle to some fixed point on its base is known as the check line. It
is drawn mainly to check the accuracy of the triangle.
d. Offset: The lateral measurement taken from an object to the chain line is known as offset. Offsets are taken to locate
objects with reference to the chain line. Offsets are classified into two type’s i. Perpendicular offsets and ii. Oblique
offsets
i. Perpendicular offsets: Lateral measurements are taken perpendicular to the chain line and they are known as
perpendicular offsets.
ii. Oblique offsets: Any offset not perpendicular to the chain line is called oblique. Oblique offsets are allowed when it
is not possible to set up a right angle due to some difficulties.
Errors in taping

Errors and mistakes may arise from:

• Erroneous length of tape
• Careless holding and marking
• Tape not horizontal
• Variations in temperature
• Range pole not plumb
• Alignment error
• Sag in tape
• Pulling difference
 Corrections in taping

 Tape too long/tape too short

By ratio and proportion, the actual/correct distance can be calculated as:
LS D A

L D

Where: LS = the actual/standard length of tape; L = nominal length of tape; DA = the actual/correct distance; and
D = distance measured or to be laid out
Likewise, the actual/correct area can be calculated as:
2
 LS  A
   A
 L A

Where: LS = the actual/standard length of tape; L = nominal length of tape; AA = the actual/correct area;
and A = area measured or to be laid out
 Correction for Temperature, Ct

Ct   Tm  T0 L
Where: α = coefficient of thermal expansion; Tm = mean temperature in the field during measurement; L =

measured length and T0 = the standard temperature for the tape.

Note: the units of Ct will be same as that of L. Ct will be + ve if Tm > T0 and negative if Tm < T0

Correction for Pull (Tension), Cp

Cp 
P  Po L
AE

Where: P = pull applied during measurement; Po= standard pull; L = measured length; A = cross-sectional area
of the tape and E = Young’s modulus of Elasticity

Note: the units of Cp will be same as that of L. Cp will be + ve if P > P o and – ve if P < P0.
 Correction for Sag per tape length, Cs (always subtracted)

2 3
w l
Cs  1
2
24P
Where: w = weight of tape per meter length; l1 = supported length of tape; and P = pull applied during
measurement

Correction for slope, CSL (always subtracted)

h2
C SL 
2L

Where: h = difference in elevation between two points; L = measured length

 Computation of Area
The term ‘area’ in the context of surveying refers to the area of a tract of land projected upon the horizontal plane, and not to the
actual area of the land surface. Area may be expressed in the following units.
1. Square – metres
2. Hectares
3. Square – feet
4. Acres
The following chart shows a hierarchical representation of the various methods of computation of area
 Measurement of area by Trapezoidal and Simpson’s rule:
 a. Trapezoidal rule:

While applying the trapezoidal rule, boundaries between the ends of ordinates are assumed to be straight.
Thus the areas enclosed between the base line and the irregular boundary line are considered as trapezoids.

Figure 2‑10 Line sketch for Trapezoidal and Simpson's rule

Area:
To the sum of the first and the last ordinate, twice the sum of intermediate ordinate is added. This total sum is multiplied by the common
distance. The half of this product is the required area.
 
Area =
 
Area =
b. Simpson rule: In this rule, the boundaries between the ends of ordinates are assumed to form an arc of a
parabola. Hence Simpson’s rule is sometimes called the parabolic rule.
Area:

To the sum of the first and the last ordinate, four times the sum of even ordinates and twice the sum of the
remaining odd ordinates are added. This total sum is multiplied by the common distance. One third of this
product is the required area.

Area =

Area =
 Area determined by coordinate method

 When offsets are taken at very irregular intervals, then the application of the trapezoidal rule and Simpson’s rule is very
difficult. In such case, the coordinate method is best.

Figure 2‑11 Coordinate method to determine the area

 Taking g as the origin, the coordinates of all other points are arranged as follows:

Coordinates
Points
X Y

a 0 y0

b x1 y1

c x2 y2

d x3 y3

e x4 y4

f x4 0

g 0 0

a 0 y0
 The coordinates are arranged in determinant form as follows

 Sum of products along the downside arrow,

Ʃ P = (y0x1+y1x2+……+0.0)

 Similarly sum of product along upside arrow

ƩQ = (0.y1+x1y2+……+0. y0)

The required area A = x (Ʃ P- ƩQ)