AIRCRAFT STABILITY AND CONTROL

17AE73

Module-2
Static Longitudinal Stability& Static Directional Stability
and Control-Stick free

Syed Mohsin Dr. R Rajasekar

Assistant Professor Professor
Department of Aeronautical Engineering Department of Aeronautical
Engineering

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Learning objectives:

1. Understand the basics of aircraft stability and control, Longitudinal Stick Fixed
Stability
2. Understand the static longitudinal stick free stability and static directional stability.
3. Acquire the knowledge on lateral stability and longitudinal dynamic stability.
4. Understand concepts of Rigid Body equations of motions and Dynamic derivatives.
5. Understand Dynamic Lateral and Directional Stability and Cooper Harper Scale for
estimation of handling qualities

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Module -1
Static Longitudinal Stability and Control-Stick Fixed
Historical perspective, Aerodynamic Nomenclature, Equilibrium conditions, Definition of static stability, Definition
of longitudinal static stability, stability criteria, Contribution of airframe components: Wing contribution, Tail
contribution, Fuselage contribution, Power effects- Propeller airplane and Jet airplane Introduction, Trim condition.
Static margin. Stick fixed neutral points. Longitudinal control, Elevator power, Elevator angle versus equilibrium
lift coefficient, Elevator required for landing, Restriction on forward C.G. range.

Module -2
Static Longitudinal Stability& Static Directional Stability and Control-Stick free
Introduction, Hinge moment parameters, Control surface floating characteristics and aerodynamic balance,
Estimation of hinge moment parameters, The trim tabs, Stick-free Neutral point, Stick force gradient in
unaccelerated flight, Restriction on aft C.G. Introduction, Definition of directional stability, Static directional
stability rudder fixed, Contribution of airframe components, Directional control. Rudder power, Stick-free
directional stability, Requirements for directional control, Rudder lock, Dorsal fin. One engine inoperative
condition. Weather cocking effect.

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Module -3
Static lateral dynamic & longitudinal stability and control
Introduction, definition of Roll stability. Estimation of dihedral effect., Effect of wing sweep, flaps, and power,
Lateral control, Estimation of lateral control power, Aileron control forces, Balancing the aileron. Coupling
between rolling and yawing moments. Adverse yaw effects. Aileron reversal. Definition of Dynamic longitudinal
stability. Types of modes of motion: longor phugoid motion, short period motion. Airplane Equations of
longitudinal motion.

Module -4
Estimation of Dynamic Derivatives
Derivation of rigid body equations of motion, Orientation and position of the airplane, gravitational and thrust
forces, Small disturbance theory. Aerodynamic force and moment representation, Derivatives due to change in
forward speed, Derivatives due to the pitching velocity, Derivatives due to the time rate of change of angle of
attack, Derivatives due to rolling rate, Derivatives due to yawing rate.

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Module -5
Dynamic Lateral and Directional Stability
Routh’s criteria. Factors affecting period and damping of oscillations. Effect of wind shear. Flying qualities in
pitch. Cooper-Harper Scale. Response to aileron step-function, sideslip excursion. Dutch roll and Spiral
instability. Auto- rotation and spin. Stability derivatives for lateral and directional dynamics.

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 Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (RBT) Level: L1, L2

Module-2
Static Longitudinal Stability& Static Directional Stability and Control-
Stick free- Contents
• Introduction, Hinge moment parameters, Control surface floating
characteristics and aerodynamic balance, Estimation of hinge moment
parameters, The trim tabs, Stick-free Neutral point, Stick force gradient in
unaccelerated flight, Restriction on aft C.G.
• Introduction & Definition of directional stability, Static directional
stability rudder fixed, Contribution of airframe components, Directional
control. Rudder power, Stick-free directional stability, Requirements for
directional control, Rudder lock, Dorsal fin. One engine inoperative
Reference-
condition. Weather cocking effect. Perkins, C.D., and Hage, R.E., “Airplane Performance
stability and Control”
Nelson, R.C. “Flight Stability and Automatic Control”
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 Bridge Material Static Stability

If forces are generated on the aircraft in a way such that forces causing the disturbance are countered, and the aircraft
attains its original position, then the aircraft is said to be statically stable. If it tends to return to its original position, it has
Positive Stability.
If the aircraft continues to increase the orientation after disturbance, the aircraft is said to be statically unstable. If it tends
to move further away, it has Negative Stability.
If there are no further changes in flight attitude and if the aircraft retains the position, which means there are no net
forces or moments acting on the aircraft in the new orientation too, then the aircraft is said to be statically neutral. If it just
remains in its new position it has Neutral Stability.

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 Dynamic Stability

If forces are generated on the aircraft in a way such that forces causing the disturbance are countered, and the aircraft
attains its original position, then the aircraft is said to be statically stable. If it tends to return to its original position, it
has Positive Stability.
If the aircraft continues to increase the orientation after disturbance, the aircraft is said to be statically unstable. If it
tends to move further away, it has Negative Stability.
If there are no further changes in flight attitude and if the aircraft retains the position, which means there are no
net forces or moments acting on the aircraft in the new orientation too, then the aircraft is said to be statically neutral.
If it just remains in its new position it has Neutral Stability.

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 Recalling Earlier concepts Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (RBT) Level: L1

Introduction

• Initially when aviation started, all aircraft were controlled by control run that
comprised essentially of push-pull rods, pulley cable system. When the stick /
yoke is moved, the control surface (i,.e elevator / aileron / rudder) moved on
ground. So when the control surface is moved the stick / yoke / pedals moved
correspondingly in the cockpit.
• Such control runs are called
• Reversible Controls.

Comprehensive Question

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Courtesy : Flight Stability & Automatic Control by Rob C Nelson

Reference-
Perkins, C.D., and Hage, R.E., “Airplane Performance
stability and Control”
Nelson, R.C. “Flight Stability and Automatic Control”
10
The discussion in stick fixed stability always considered aircraft trimmed ( ) for
a given elevator deflection.

The response of aircraft to a disturbance was the measure of stability. However in fling
the pilot feels for the static longitudinal stability through the stick force required to
change the speed from a given trim condition.

The magnitude of the control force/stick force Fs required by the pilot to change speed
from any trim condition is closely related to a stability criterion similar to when
the control is left free. This criterion is referred to as stick free longitudinal static stability

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• This criterion is of extreme importance to a pilot flying the airplane as his
sense of control and stability of the airplane is governed by this force he
gets as a feedback from the stick / yoke.
• So we can say Stick-Fixed Longitudinal Static Stability is important
for an airplane to be stable, Stick-Free Longitudinal Static Stability is
important for a pilot to feel that the ac is stable in reversible control
airplane.
(Explain elevator hinge here )

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• If the elevator is mounted on a frictionless bearing, it will move and
balance itself to a position based on the pressure distribution around it.
• In other words we can say it will float and assume a position based on the
pressure distribution around it.
• The pressure distribution will cause a moment about the elevator hinge
causing it to rotate.

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Courtesy : Flight Stability & Automatic Control by
Rob C Nelson

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• This Float of the elevator (moment ) is opposite to its deflection, and will
be increasing in magnitude for increasing deflection.
• The float reduces the stability of the tail as it reduces the effective
deflection.
• Therefore stick free stability will be lesser in magnitude than the stick
fixed stability
• The hinge moment calculations are found to vary from experimental
values and therefore, most hinge moment estimations are carried out with
experiments rather than from theoretical

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 Comprehensive Questions Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (RBT) Level: L1

Hinge Moment Parameters

The pressure distribution over the horizontal stabiliser is a function of two
major variables
• The AOA of the airfoil
• Deflection of elevator chord wrt to the stabiliser chord

Courtesy : Long Static Stability Cornell University Notes

Reference-
Perkins, C.D., and Hage, R.E., “Airplane Performance
stability and Control”
Nelson, R.C. “Flight Stability and Automatic Control”

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Courtesy : Airplane Perfo, Stab & Control Perkins and Hage

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Courtesy : Airplane Perfo, Stab & Control Perkins and Hage

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Courtesy : Airplane Perfo, Stab & Control Perkins and Hage

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Courtesy : Airplane Perfo, Stab & Control Perkins
and Hage

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 Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (RBT) Level: L1

Multiple Choice Questions

Which of the following is incorrect?

a) Uncambered wing lift curve is not same as that of the Cambered
b) Stick free and stick fixed are same
c) Lift is not always same as weight
d) Thrust required is not always same power

Which of the following is correct?

a) Elevator can float in stick free condition
b) Drag is always same as weight
c) Power loading is same as weight
d) Stability is same for every aircraft

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The magnitude of hinge moment at any combination of AOA and elevator deflection
is a combined effect of the pressure distribution that we saw independently before.

It is assumed that the total hinge moment HM is the addition of the two contributions
taken separately.

Since we always talk about elevator deflection when considering hinge moments we drop
e from δe and henceforth write only δ, hence the equation now becomes

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• Assuming the variation of hinge moment with AOA
and is linear , the absolute value of the Hinge
Moment for a given AOA and is given by
•+

Courtesy : Airplane Perfo, Stab & Control Perkins and Hage

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It is very convenient to express the hinge moment similar to other stability coefficients in
a non dimensionalised format so we can manipulate similar to lift and drag calling Hinge
Ch
moment coefficients obtained by Hinge moment by dynamic pressure, Surface area
SCthe hinge lines
of the elevator behind c c behind the
RMS chord of the control surface
hinge line

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• The partial derivatives
can be written in coefficient form as and
respectively so equ (4) can now be written as
Ch+
As we considered in the stick fixed case, we need to
find the starting point of hinge moments when aircraft
is in balanced equilibrium with zero elevator deflection
(=0) and αt =0. This caters for residual hinge moment
Ch+
In most aircraft stabiliser is a symmetrical aerofoil, so
the value of =0 and may be ignored

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• Control Surface Floating Characteristics and
Aerodynamic Balance
The two hinge moment coefficients oppose each other.
Whenever there is a change in t, the comes into play
and the elevator floats up. This float (floating tendency)
results in a , which creates that opposes this increase in
. This is called as the restoring tendency, We can
measure the floating angle by equating (5) = 0, i.e.
Ch+=0

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• Ch+=0

varies with and if & have –ve sign then elevator will
float up more with increasing AOA, to get the rate of
float of elevator wrt AOA we differentiate it wrt AOA

On most surfaces it is important to reduce floating

tendency to near zero. It is desirable to have restoring
parameter moderate to low so that the pilot can
deflect the elevator.

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Methods to controlling and are of prime importance
and interest, this is called methods of aerodynamic
balancing.
Set Back Hinge (commonly used)

Courtesy : Airplane Perfo, Stab & Control Perkins and Hage

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 Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (RBT) Level: L1

Multiple Choice Questions

Stick free stability permits ____________

a) elevator to float
b) elevator to be fixed
c) fixed rigid body
d) lift and drag ratio

Stick fixed and stick free are similar.

a) True
b) False

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 Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (RBT) Level: L1

Set Back Hinge

• The moment for set back hinge is smaller than when hinge is placed at the radius
of the nose of the elevator.
• If the hinge is moved far aft there is a possibility that the nose of the elevator
will be exposed above the upper surface of the horizontal stabiliser and the
dynamic pressure would reverse the hinge moment. This condition is called
overbalanced elevator.
• Hinge moment parameters are very sensitive to hinge line position, and can
become +ve when the line is moved aft

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Estimation of Hinge Moment Parameters Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (RBT) Level: L1

• Estimation of hinge moments is important as they are responsible for

the “Feel” pilots get when flying the aircraft.
• Estimation is carried out by two methods
• Semi Analytical Empirical Method (NACA WR A-11)
• Wind Tunnel Tests

Reference-
Perkins, C.D., and Hage, R.E., “Airplane Performance
stability and Control”
Nelson, R.C. “Flight Stability and Automatic Control”

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Courtesy : Airplane Perfo, Stab & Control Perkins and Hage

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 Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (RBT) Level: L1

• The variation of hinge moment has been assumed to be linear with change
in AOA.
• However, in practice it varies non linearly at large values of AOA, and so
do the hinge moments.
• In these conditions, due to the fact that hinge moment varies, the pilot
gets a aerodynamic warning that he is at high values of AOA and can be
cautious about onset of stall /break in airflow.

Courtesy : Airplane Perfo, Stab & Control Perkins and Hage

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 Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (RBT) Level: L1
Recalling Earlier concepts

Elevator Trim Tab

• The elevator is a small auxiliary flap built into the trailing edge of the elevator.
• Because of its location, it has a powerful influence over the elevator hinge line,
and is used for trimming the residual force or balancing.
• Some regulations (FAR 25) specify that the trim tab be as powerful as the elevator
itself in case of a elevator control run failure.
• Deflecting the tab down causes the elevator surface to float up and deflecting the
tab up results in the elevator to float down

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Elevator Trim Tab
• Deflecting the tab down (positive) creates –ve hinge
moments and the slope of a curve of control hinge
moment Vs tab deflection will be –ve.
• We can now write the hinge moment equation as
Ch+
Ch+ + --------(8)
From (8)=0, we can get the control floating angle
----------(9)

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• We can introduce a tab effectiveness term (τt) similar
to the elevator effectiveness term wherein the value
is proportional to the area of tab to the area of the
elevator as well as the span of tab to that of the
elevator.
• (explain with figure)
=-

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Courtesy : Airplane Perfo, Stab & Control Perkins and Hage

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• Hinge moments are very sensitive to elevator deflection. When the
elevator is deflected by a large magnitude, the tab hinge moment drops
rapidly.
• Experiments indicate a reasonable linearity for a surface deflection of 0 to
15 deg. By 30 deg the hinge moment reduce by over 50%.
• Hinge moments are determined by accurate wind tunnel tests at large
Reynolds number on large scale models.

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 Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (RBT) Level: L1

Multiple Choice Questions

Which of the following is correct?

a) Aircraft static longitudinal stability will be dependent upon the arrangement of different
components
b) Lift is always same as weight
c) Static stability is similar to dynamic stability
d) All the aircrafts are statistically stable

Stick force is function of ___________

a) hinge moment
b) lofting
c) fuel air ratio
d) pressure ratio of inlet

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 Stick Free Neutral Point Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (RBT) Level: L2

The total hinge moment coefficient of the elevator is

given by (8)
Ch+ +
For Ch=0 and =0 t ----(10)

Reference-
Perkins, C.D., and Hage, R.E., “Airplane Performance
stability and Control”
Nelson, R.C. “Flight Stability and Automatic Control”

Courtesy : Airplane Perfo, Stab & Control Perkins and Hage

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In a stick fixed case we calculated the elevator angle required for each lift
coefficient( trim equilibrium points) and the derivative was used as a criterion
for stick fixed stability.

In the stick free case (force applied by the pilot) if the elevator float was equal to the
next trim equilibrium point, there would be no need for the pilot to apply any force
and the ac would be called neutrally stable for stick free condition

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• To determine stick free stability we need to determine
the .
This would be the value of
=
We know and
The stability contribution of the free elevator is
= -------(11)

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The value of the floating angle derivative comes from
equ (10) t
=-----(12)
We know - therefore
== ---(13) we also know
==---(14)

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Putting (12), (13), (14) and elevator power in (11) =
= τ this implies =+τ----(15)
Stick fixed Stability criterion (without power) was

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Stick fixed Stability criterion (without power) was

Stick free stability criterion (without power) will now be

The free elevator factor is the term that is added to stick fixed
stability criterion to get the stick free stability criterion
For aircraft with no change in hinge moment (=0), stick fixed and stick
free stabilities are same. If =2 and =0.5 then tail contribution is
completely annulled, so elevator balance design is important

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We know Stick Free stability criterion (without power) is :

Stick Free Neutral point ) obtained directly from above

equation as:
=--(17)

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Stick Free Neutral point ) obtained directly from above
equation as:
=
The difference between Stick fixed and stick free Neutral
point is
hn-== - ---(18)

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Courtesy : Airplane Perfo, Stab & Control Perkins and Hage

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 Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (RBT) Level: L1

Multiple Choice Questions

Which of the following is correct for hinge moment?

a) Hinge moment coefficient is function of tail angle of attack
b) Hinge moment is not dependent on the tail angle
c) Downwash is used to reduces angle of attack at tail
d) Lifting property of the airfoil is same as a sphere

Hinge moment coefficient depends upon ________

a) Tail AOA, elevator deflection, etc
b) Only tail angle
c) Only wing angle
d) Lift to drag ratio of fuselage

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Stick Force Gradient in Unaccelerated Flight
The criterion is the basic influence on the force (Fs ) the
pilot has to apply on the control stick / yoke to change
the aircraft speed from a trimmed condition when
(Fs=0). It is necessary that pilot needs to apply pull
forces to drop speed below trim point and push forces
to increase speed above trim point. For the pilot to feel
comfortable has a very direct influence. The gradient of
force around trim point is referred to as Stick Force
Gradient.

Reference- Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (RBT) Level: L2

Perkins, C.D., and Hage, R.E., “Airplane Performance
stability and Control”
Nelson, R.C. “Flight Stability and Automatic Control”
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The pilot applied the force on top of the stick determined by the hinge
moment at the elevator and the gearing ratio between the pilot’s stick and the
elevator.
The gearing ratio can be worked out by equating the work done at the two
ends i.e. WD at Stick -= WD at Elev

ls

δe

Courtesy : Airplane Perfo, Stab & Control Perkins and Hage

Reference-
Perkins, C.D., and Hage, R.E., “Airplane Performance
stability and Control”
Nelson, R.C. “Flight Stability and Automatic Control”

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Work done at top of the stick = Work Done at elevator
=
Fs=HM where is called elevator gearing G
It is also represented as , where s= the linear movement
on top of the stick
Push force by the pilot is +ve, we write
Fs= - G HM= - G
Where =
Fs= - G ---(19)

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Fs= - G --(19)
We know αt=αw- ε –iw + it
------(A)
We already know that can be expressed in terms of
elevator angle at zero lift, stick fixed stability parameter
and elevator effectiveness as
=-----(B)
Putting (A) and (B) in (19) we get
Fs=
- G ---(20)

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Fs=
-G
Using K=-G called Elevator Geometry Constant
A= Moment Constant
Fs=Kq
--------(21)

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Fs=Kq
Rearranging (21) we get
Fs=K ---(22)
For unaccelerated flight putting this in (22)
Fs= K----(23)

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Fs= K----(23)
Equ (23) brings out an interesting fact that Stick Force is a
function of first term only as second term comprises only
of Constants. Stick Force is independent of general
stability level of the aircraft. The slope of stick force
varies with only
= K--------(24) where
K=-G called Elevator Geometry Constant
A= Moment Constant

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Courtesy : Airplane Perfo, Stab & Control Perkins and Hage

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• The figure indicates a constant force from the stability
term and a variable force proportional to V2 through
A and Tab term i.e. K.
• For a stable stick free stability there will be a pull
force and will require a nose up Tab to trim out the
force (Fs=0)
• The stick free stability plays an important but a
complex role in establishing stable stick force
variation with speed. This is also call speed stability or
apparent stability

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• Due to stick free stability there will always be a
requirement to use tab to bring the stick force to zero.
• The value of can be obtained form equ(23)

putting (25) in (23) we get

-----(26)
-------(27)

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-------(27)
This slope at V=VTrim will be
--------(28)
This equ indicates that the slope of Fs Vs V varies
directly with CG position, wherein the slope will
increase directly with CG moving forward as will
increase.
This slope plays a major role in the pilot’s concept
of stability. A large gradient will keep the aircraft
flying at constant speed and will resist influence of
disturbances

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 Courtesy : Airplane Perfo, Stab & Control Perkins and Hage

Introduce Friction and its influence in flying

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A large gradient will keep the aircraft flying at constant speed and will
resist influence of disturbances. It will also help the pilot to trim aircraft
easily and will not require too much attention.
It is essential to keep the friction in the longitudinal control system low so
that the control feel is not masked.

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 Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (RBT) Level: L1

Multiple Choice Questions

Negative stick force gradient is used to provide ___________

a) speed stability
b) thrust
c) propulsive force
d) gliding ratio

Find the degree of elevator float. Consider tail AOA is 2° and C Hδe= -0.005, CHɑt=-0.0052.
a) 2.08 deg
b) 4
c) 12
d) 2.119

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 Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (RBT) Level: L1
Restriction on Aft CG
• The Stick Free Neutral Point is the position of CG
where the stability criterion vanishes brings a
new restriction to the aft limit to the allowable
CG range of an aircraft.

Reference-
Perkins, C.D., and Hage, R.E., “Airplane Performance
stability and Control”
Nelson, R.C. “Flight Stability and Automatic Control”
Courtesy : Airplane Perfo, Stab & Control Perkins and Hage
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Wind Tunnel Data of DC-9 aircraft

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DC-9 Aircraft

Image Courtesy- https://www.skybrary.aero/images/DC92_3D.jpg

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 Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (RBT) Level: L1

Multiple Choice Questions

Determine the value of tail angle of attack if, elevator floats down by 1.8 degree. Consider C Hδe as 0.003 and
CHɑt as -0.006.
a) 0.9
b) 2.5
c) 3.4
d) 1.8

Find the value of CHδe if tail angle of attack is 3 deg and CHɑt is -0.004. Consider elevator floats up by 2
degree.
a) -0.006
b) -7
c) 1.223
d) 1.225

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 Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (RBT) Level: L1

Multiple Choice Questions

Stick fixed neutral point is defined at 40% of chord. Choose appropriate location of Stick free neutral
point.
a) 0.39
b) 0.8
c) 0.65
d) 0.5

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AIRCRAFT STABILITY AND CONTROL
17AE 73

STATIC DIRECTIONAL STABILITY AND CONTROL

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Definition of directional stability
 Static directional stability rudder fixed
Contribution of airframe components, Directional control.
Rudder power, Stick-free directional stability
 Requirements for directional control
Rudder lock, Dorsal fin.
One engine inoperative condition.
Weather cocking effect

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 Recalling Earlier concepts Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (RBT) Level: L1

INTRODUCTION
The longitudinal static stability studies were about the aircraft plane of
symmetry essentially studying AOA, Lift Coefficient and their effect on
longitudinal static stability
We now will be studying the flight characteristics when the aircraft flight
path no longer lies in the plane of symmetry

Reference-
Perkins, C.D., and Hage, R.E., “Airplane Performance
stability and Control”
Nelson, R.C. “Flight Stability and Automatic Control”

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 Recalling Earlier concepts

INTRODUCTION

Courtesy: SFTE HandBook 2007

Wind axis

[ ][ ][ ]
𝑥𝑠 𝑐 𝑜𝑠 β − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 β 0 𝑥𝑤
𝑦 𝑠 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 β 𝑐 𝑜𝑠 β 0 𝑦𝑤
𝑧𝑠 0 0 1 𝑧𝑤

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 INTRODUCTION
• Side slip increases drag and therefore a pilot would
anytime want to fly with zero sideslip
• Sideslip is defined as the angle wind makes with the
XZ plane of the aircraft.
For small angles we can say
, by definition β is +ve when the relative wind is to the
right of the positive longitudinal axis. (wind in the right
ear)

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Courtesy : Airplane Perfo, Stab & Control Perkins and Hage

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 Introduction
•Yaw angle Ψ is defined as the angular displacement of the aircraft longitudinal axis in the
horizontal plane from some arbitrary direction taken as zero at some instance in time
(usually north is taken as = 0).

•For a curved flight Ψ≠ β

•An aircraft in a 360 degree turn yaws through 360 deg, but may develop not develop any
sideslip during the manoeuvre, if the turn is perfectly coordinated

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 Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (RBT) Level: L1
INTRODUCTION
• For side slips during
which straight path is
maintained the Yaw
Angle ψ is equal but
opposite in sign to
the sideslip
• For straight flight

Reference-
Perkins, C.D., and Hage, R.E., “Airplane Performance
stability and Control”
Nelson, R.C. “Flight Stability and Automatic Control”
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 Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (RBT) Level: L1

Multiple Choice Questions

Stability about yawing axis is called as __________

a) directional stability
b) lateral stability
c) longitudinal stability
d) pitching moment stability

Yawing moment is positive if __________

a) right wing goes back
b) right wing comes forward
c) if nose pitches up
d) if nose pitches down

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 Comprehensive Questions Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (RBT) Level: L1

Static Directional Stability Rudder Fixed

• Static directional stability of an aircraft is its tendency to develop restoring

moments when disturbed from its equilibrium angle of sideslip, usually taken
as zero.
• It is the study of the aircraft’s yawing moments developed because of sideslip
or yaw, to see if the yawing moment so developed will tend to reduce the
sideslip or increase it.
• The total directional stability is developed as a sum of contributions of
component parts of the aircraft . (similar to Long Static Stability)
• Static Directional Stability is also called
Weathercock Stability (IIIr to the weathercocks onReference
top- of cricket grounds)
Perkins, C.D., and Hage, R.E., “Airplane Performance
stability and Control”
Nelson, R.C. “Flight Stability and Automatic Control”

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The Yawing moment coefficient is defined as :

Slope =

Courtesy :Flight Stability and Automatic Control by Rob C Nelson

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 Slope =

Courtesy : Airplane Perfo, Stab & Control Perkins and Hage

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• The total directional stability of an aircraft has contribution from all the
major components of the aircraft
• These are individually assessed analytically / from wind tunnel tests and
then summed up to the final aircraft total directional stability
• Contribution of Wing to directional stability is a very small factor,
essentially the wing sweep back will increase the directional stability
and sweep forward will decrease the directional stability

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 Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (RBT) Level:
L2

Wing Contribution

• Contribution of Wing to directional stability is a very small factor,

essentially the wing sweep back will increase the directional stability and
sweep forward will decrease the directional stability

• Straight Wing will have

neutral contribution

Reference-
Perkins, C.D., and Hage, R.E., “Airplane Performance
stability and Control”
Nelson, R.C. “Flight Stability and Automatic Control”

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• Change in CG has little effect on the directional
stability contribution from the wing.
• The wing contribution is estimated with the formula

where Λ is the sweep back angle of the quarter chord in

deg (+ve for sweep back)

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 Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (RBT) Level: L2

Fuselage and Naceles Contribution

• Fuselage and nacelle contribution is usually negative to directional

stability.
• These are one of the major contributors to directional stability
• The effect is similar to the longitudinal case where we get a moment due
to sideslip angle
or β

Courtesy : Airplane Perfo, Stab & Control Perkins and Hage

85
Assuming fuselage is a slender body, wherein the
moments created by potential flow under nominal sideslip
angles is unstable and is a function of the dynamic
pressure as well as the volume of the fuselage in feet3 is
given by (Munk)
=
Applying the Multhopp Correction Factor given by fig
=(K2-K1)

86
Courtesy : Airplane Perfo, Stab & Control Perkins and Hage

87
 Multiple Choice Questions

Stability about roll axis is called _____________

a) lateral stability
b) directional stability
c) longitudinal stability
d) elevator control

If aircraft is in straight flight (cruise with lift of 100N) then, what will be the value of net rolling moment?
Consider ideal conditions.
a) 0 unit
b) 12 Nm
c) 23 unit
d) 25 N/m

88
Unlike AOA where we were particular in calculation local
AOA in Longitudinal Static Stability, in the directional case
we are not calculating the local sideslip angle as we assume
that the wings do not alter the sideslip (or -of the whole
aircraft.

The fuselage contribution in terms of rate of change of

yawing moment per angle of yaw is given by
, where wf is taken for each segment of fuselage such that
gives a close approximation to the segment volume.
For conventional airplanes

89
Another empirical estimation by North American Aviation
Company is given by

Ss is the projected side area in feet

Courtesy : Airplane Perfo, Stab & Control Perkins and Hage

90
• There is some interference between the wing and
fuselage because of which we cannot add numerically
the wing contribution and fuselage contribution.
• The value of wing fuselage interference for conventional
aircraft is found to be stabilising and is usually of the
magnitude of > -0.0001.

Courtesy : Airplane Perfo, Stab & Control Perkins and Hage

91
Courtesy :Flight Stability and Automatic Control by Rob C Nelson

92
Engine and Propeller Contribution
• Running propeller or engine intake
can have large effects on directional
stability
• Destabilising if tractor
• Stabilising if pusher (behind the CG)

Courtesy : Airplane Perfo, Stab & Control Perkins and Hage

93
 Recalling Earlier concepts Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (RBT) Level: L1

Vertical Tail Contribution to Directional Stability

(Weather Cock Stability)

Reference-
Perkins, C.D., and Hage, R.E., “Airplane Performance
stability and Control”
Nelson, R.C. “Flight Stability and Automatic Control”

94
N=-Lv x lv-------------(1)
qvSvlv------------(2)
We nondimensionalise by dividing the Yawing Moment
by qSwb we get
-----------(3)
is not exactly the lift curve slope of the vertical tail av
= . There is a straightening of flow due to fuselage that
causes a side wash effect (σ). Side wash is due to the
vortex causing a inboard motion above the vortex sheet
and outboard flow below the vortex sheet. (fig in
previous slide)

95
The effective angle of attack at the vertical tail is
αv= ψ-σ
Using (4) in (3) we get

= ---(5)
Where av=, Directional stability contribution of vertical
tial can be obtained by differentiating (5) wrt
=ηv----(6)

96
ηv----(6)
This equ can be divided into two parts as
ηvηv----(7)
The first term is the tail contribution, the second term is
the Wing Fuselage interference or side wash interference
term.

Courtesy : Airplane Perfo, Stab & Control Perkins and Hage

97
ηvηv----(7)
=
The first term is the tail contribution, the second term is
the Wing Fuselage interference or side wash interference
term.

Courtesy : Airplane Perfo, Stab & Control Perkins and Hage 98

The final estimate of directional stability of the airplane is the
summation of the various factors discussed :
--------(8)
==-ve for stability

= + vecontrib for all vert tail / Fin to rear

Secondary Cotrib Position of Wing wrt Fuselage, Wing
Fuselage Interference (sidewash effect)
Show examples of values from Nelson

99
 Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (RBT) Level: L1

Multiple Choice Questions

Which is the minimum requirement for pure directional stability?

a) Slope of yawing moment curve positive
b) Negative lift curve slope
c) Negative pitching moment coefficient curve slope
d) Positive zero lift pitching moment coefficient

Rolling moment will influence _______

a) aircraft lateral stability
b) longitudinal stability
c) pitch axis stability
d) pitching stability only

100
 Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (RBT) Level: L1

Directional Control
• As aircraft is symmetric about XY and YZ plane , and will have
zero sideslip when in equilibrium.
• During manoeuvring however, yawing moments are introduced and
there is a need to control the yawing moments, if the requirement is
to maintain zero sideslip.
• Control is applied by means of Rudder.
• Manoeuvres that introduce yawing moments are
• Adverse yaw / Proverse yaw
• Slipstream rotation
• Cross winds during take-off and landing
• Spinning
• Asymmetric Power in multi engine aircraft
101
• We know yawing moment due to rudder deflection is
given by N=-Lv x lvqvSvlv-------(8)
• We non-dimensionalise by dividing the Yawing
Moment by qSwb we get
------(9)
• The rate of change of yawing moment coefficient per
degree of rudder deflection is by differentiating (9)
wrtδr.
• Control surface effectiveness is given by
=ηv----(10)
• In most airplanes =0.001, If the directional stability is ,
it implies that you need one deg rudder for one
degree sideslip

102
• For most aircraft, rudder deflection is limited to + 30 deg as rudder
effectiveness decreases rapidly after this.

• Effectiveness varies considerably with speed and power of slipstream where

applicable. In propeller aircraft, the rudder effectiveness is high when engine
power is high and the aircraft speeds are low. The effectiveness reduces as
the speed increases.

Courtesy : Airplane Perfo, Stab & Control Perkins and Hage

103
Reference-
Perkins, C.D., and Hage, R.E., “Airplane Performance
stability and Control”
Nelson, R.C. “Flight Stability and Automatic Control”

104
 Comprehensive Questions

Manoeuvres that introduce yawing moments are

• Adverse yaw / Proverse yaw

• Slipstream rotation

• Cross winds during take-off and landing

• Spinning

• Asymmetric Power in multi engine aircraft

105
Adverse yaw / Proverseyaw
Adverse and proverse yaw are estimated for designing
rudder of an aircraft.
Adverse yaw moment can be estimated by
where is the helix angle generated by roll in radians per
sec.
Adverse yaw is critical at low velocities (high CL) . The
rudder power required to overcome adverse yaw can be
expressed as

106
 Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (RBT) Level: L1

Slipstream Effect

The most critical design requirement of rudder for a single engine propeller
aircraft is the slip stream effect. This is particularly critical at low speeds and
high power conditions (take-off) with crosswinds.

Reference-
Courtesy : Airplane Perfo, Stab & Control Perkins and Hage Perkins, C.D., and Hage, R.E., “Airplane Performance
stability and Control”
Nelson, R.C. “Flight Stability and Automatic Control”

107
Asymmetric Power Effects Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (RBT) Level: L1

In multi-engined aircraft the most critical condition for

rudder requirement is the asymmetric power condition
at low speeds and high power situation (take-off roll).
Yawing Moment coefficient due to asymmetric thrust
can be estimated with
This is a cubic in Vmphwith yawing moment coeff
increasing inversely with v3.

NT=T x ly

Courtesy : Airplane Perfo, Stab & Control Perkins and Hage

108
Courtesy : Airplane Perfo, Stab & Control Perkins and Hage

109
• The rudder at maximum deflection would give a constant yawing moment
coefficient. Intersection of the curve with yawing moment coefficient with
full power is the speed below which full deflection of rudder will not be
able to balance out the moment due to asymmetric power (Vmca).
• The limitations for spin and cross wind take off / landing though critical
for aircraft, are not a part that are critical for rudder sizing / design;
therefore, do not limit it.

110
 Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (RBT) Level: L1
Multiple Choice Questions

Following diagram represents ___________

a) typical roll stability concept

b) typical longitudinal stability
c) lift curve
d) drag polar

111
Stick Free Directional Stability Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (RBT) Level: L2

In reversible comtrol systems, rudder will

have a Float (similar to what we saw in
elevator) which will affect the directional
stability.
HMrudder=+
In Coefficient form we have
---(11)
When Rud Hinge moment is zero, the
floating hinge moment will be balanced
by the rudder float and we get

----(12)

112
The effective angle of attack on the vertical fin is the sum
of the side slip angle, rudder float and the side wash angle.
----(13)
The restoring yawing moment coefficient developed by the
vertical tail will be as seen in (9):
---(14)
Putting (13) in (14) we get
-----(15)
Putting (12) in (15) we now get
-------(16)

113
-------(16)
The stability contribution of vertical tail with free rudder
(differentiating wrt) we get:
=--(17)

• In high speed aircraft control over the rudder forces is

required to ensure rudder pedal forces are within the
pilot’s force limitations. For this the ratio of is kept very
low so that not much stick free directional stability is lost.

114
• Too low force gradient would make the aircraft difficult
to fly with zero sideslip during manoeuvers. Pilots prefer
a high force gradient on the rudder.
• The equation for the pedal force in terms of the rudder
hinge moment and mechanical gearing (similar to the
Stick Force we studied in Longitudinal Stability) we have:
Pedal Force PF=G x HM (where G-Gearing Ratio, HM –
Hinge Moments)
PF=G(-------( 18)
Rudder deflection required for producing a given sideslip
can be written as -----(19)
Where ----------(20)

115
Substituting ----------(20) & (19) in our Pedal Force equ (18)
we get

PF=G(
PF=G(
Differentiating this equwrt and rearranging we get the
Rudder Force Gradient (of maximum interest to the pilot)

---(21)

116
---(21)
One of the important assumption in this equation is that we
are assuming that all slopes are linear i.e the PF gradient,
rudder fixed stability, rudder free stability …..
However, this is true for only a limited range of sideslip
usually + 10 degβ or ψ.
At high values of β the rudder float increases and looses its
aerodynamic balance and at high values the centre of
pressure moves back and results in the rudder float well
over and get locked in a high deflection. This is termed as
Rudder Lock.
In a rudder lock, the force to hold the rudder deflected in
the max deflection will be zero, and considerable force will
be required to break the lock.

117
118
 Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (RBT) Level: L1

The dorsal fin works the same way as reducing aspect ratio (i.e increasing the
vertical tail area with the same span), thereby increasing the stall AOA (β) and
reducing its slope.
Ventral Fins also add to directional stability as they add to the keel surface
behind the CG
Reference-
Perkins, C.D., and Hage, R.E., “Airplane Performance
stability and Control”
Nelson, R.C. “Flight Stability and Automatic Control”

119
 Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (RBT) Level: L1

Weather Cock stability is the same as directional stability i.e. Cnβ

120
 Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (RBT) Level: L1
Multiple Choice Questions

Which of the following is correct?

a) Fuselage can affect aerodynamic efficiency
b) Fuselage cannot affect aerodynamic efficiency
c) Aerodynamic efficiency is not dependent on the fuselage at all
d) Aerodynamic efficiency will always be half if fuselage is long

Poor wing fuselage will reduce lift loss.

a) True
b) False

If an aircraft is not designed properly then __________

a) it can experience excessive flow separation
b) it will have more lift
c) it will have less drag
d) it will have higher aerodynamic efficiency

121
 Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (RBT) Level: L1
Multiple Choice Questions

What is the disadvantage of short and fat fuselage?

a) Higher supersonic wave drag
b) Higher incompressible wave drag
c) Lower supersonic wave drag
d) Lower wetted area

Determine the corrections or otherwise of the following assertion [A] and reason [R]:
Assertion [A]: Maintaining smooth longitudinal contour in fuselage will give better aerodynamic
design.
Reason[R]: Longitudinal control lines are used to provide smoothness to the fuselage.
a) Both [A] and [R] are true and [R] is the correct reason for [A]
b) Both [A] and [R] are true but [R] is not the correct reason for [A]
c) Both [A] and [R] are false
d) [A] is false but [R] is true

122
 Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (RBT) Level: L1

GATE EXAM MCQ`S

The pitching moment of a positively cambered NACA airfoil about its leading edge at zero-lift angle of
attack is (GATE-2018)
(A) negative.
(B) positive.
(C) indeterminate.
(D) Zero

Lift on an aircraft climbing vertically up is (GATE-2011)

(A) equal to its weight (B) zero
(C) equal to the drag (D) equal to the thrust

123
 Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (RBT) Level: L1

GATE EXAM MCQ`S

If an aircraft is performing a positive yawing manoeuvre, the side slip angle

(A) is always zero (B) is never zero
(C) is always negative (D) could be any value

For an airplane to be statically stable, its centre of gravity must always be

(A) ahead of wing aerodynamic centre
(B) aft of the wing aerodynamic centre
(C) ahead of neutral point
(D) aft of neutral point

124
 Module-2 Assessment

https://forms.gle/Fqe5PqFt4YpLe8579

The above Google Forms Link to be

obtained & filled by Students for
Assessment

125
 Case Studies On Aircraft Stability and Control

1. CONTROLLED FLIGHT INTO TERRAIN KOREAN AIR FLIGHT 801 BOEING 747-300, HL7468
NIMITZ HILL, GUAM AUGUST 6, 1997-
https://www.ntsb.gov/investigations/AccidentReports/Reports/AAR0001.pdf

Abstract: This case study explains the accident involving Korean Air flight 801, a Boeing 747-300, which
crashed into high terrain at Nimitz Hill, Guam, on August 6, 1997. Safety issues in the report focus on flight
crew performance, approach procedures, and pilot training; air traffic control, including controller performance
and the inhibition of the minimum safe altitude warning system at Guam; emergency response; the adequacy of
Korean Civil Aviation Bureau and Federal Aviation Administration oversight; and flight data recorder
documentation. Safety recommendations concerning these issues are addressed to the Federal Aviation
Administration, the Governor of the Territory of Guam, and the Korean Civil Aviation Bureau.

126
 Case Studies On Aircraft Stability and Control

2. Left Engine Failure and Subsequent Depressurization Southwest Airlines Flight 1380 Boeing 737-7H4,
N772SW Philadelphia, Pennsylvania April 17, 2018-
https://www.ntsb.gov/investigations/AccidentReports/Reports/AAR1903.pdf

Abstract: This case study discusses the April 17, 2018, accident involving a Boeing 737-7H4, N772SW,
operated by Southwest Airlines as flight 1380, that experienced a failure of its left CFM International
CFM56-7B turbofan engine while climbing through flight level 320 en route to the flight’s assigned cruise
altitude (the flight had departed from LaGuardia Airport, Queens, New York, about 30 minutes earlier).
Portions of the left engine inlet and fan cowl separated from the airplane; one fan cowl fragment impacted
the left-side fuselage near a cabin window, and the window departed the airplane, which resulted in a rapid
depressurization. As a result of the engine failure, the flight crew conducted an emergency descent and
diverted to Philadelphia International Airport (PHL), Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The airplane landed
safely at PHL about 17 minutes after the engine failure occurred. Of the 144 passengers and 5
crewmembers aboard the airplane, 1 passenger received fatal injuries, and 8 passengers received minor
injuries.

127
 NPTEL LECTURES

1. Flight Dynamics- Aircraft Stability and Control –Prof EG Tulapurkara

https://nptel.ac.in/courses/101/106/101106043/

2. Aircraft Stability and Control- Stick Free Stability-Prof A K Ghosh, Dept of Aerospace Engineering, IIT
Kanpur-
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mtqc2BX8MMY&list=PLtUPB3SCffXPbKOXpvNMi6YI_tUqfFv82&i
ndex=26

3. Aircraft Stability and Control- Hinge Moment-Prof A K Ghosh, Dept of Aerospace Engineering, IIT
Kanpur-
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EEirwwTnGS4&list=PLtUPB3SCffXPbKOXpvNMi6YI_tUqfFv82&in
dex=28

4. Aircraft Stability and Control- Directional Stability-Prof A K Ghosh, Dept of Aerospace Engineering, IIT
Kanpur-
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nHPAVy35Wrs&list=PLtUPB3SCffXPbKOXpvNMi6YI_tUqfFv82&ind
ex=21

5. Aircraft Stability and Control- Directional Control-Prof A K Ghosh, Dept of Aerospace Engineering, IIT
Kanpur- 128
 Topics Identified to Overcome the Mis Match in the Curriculum
Aircraft Stability & Control-Hinge Moment Derivative by Control-Prof A K Ghosh, Dept of Aerospace
Engineering, IIT Kanpur-https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EEirwwTnGS4
Outcome: Understand the Stick free longitudinal static stabililty, the estimation of Hinge moment parameters and
Hinge moment derivatives

Additional Resources-Innovative topic Link

Dynamics and Stability- TU Delft Open Course ware
https://ocw.tudelft.nl/courses/dynamics-and-stability/?view=lectures

Aircraft Stability & Control-MIT Open CourseWare

http://ocw.abu.edu.ng/courses/aeronautics-and-astronautics/16-333-aircraft-stability-and-control-fall-2004/lectur
e-notes/
Outcome : Acquire knowledge on the concepts of Stability and Control of Aircraft. Understand the Dynamics
involved in the motion of aircraft.

129
 FDP Content

Webinar series on the History of Flight Dynamics in Airplane Design- the importance
of Trim by University of Kansas
https://mediahub.ku.edu/media/Flight+Dynamics+in+Airplane+DesignA+The+Importance+of+Trim/0_w9ux7wa
p?submissionGuid=f5c11080-7d67-4ec4-99c4-cbc6510b5a7e
Outcome: Understand the concept of Trim,and how you can alter a design to make sure the airplane is trimmable
and How trim differs in conventional tail aft, canard and three-surface aircraft

Webinar series on Aerodynamic Design Improvements—Airplane Active Flow

Control by University of Kansas
https://mediahub.ku.edu/media/Aerodynamic+Flow+Webinar/0_i7ady9b6?submissionGuid=cd128d76-f8aa-4
45c-b67b-7b1ec6ecf17f
Outcome: Understand different flow control techniques and How active aerodynamic control is considered to
mitigate fluctuations in lift due to gusts and other flow variations and also acquire knowledge on the Ways to
study this problem computationally as well as experimentally

130
 University Questions by Raising the
RBT Levels Module-2

1. Explain Elevator Trim Tab with a neat sketch and Solve the Hinge moment Coefficient
expression due to tab deflection (L2 to L3)
2. Identify and explain the contribution of Wing, Fuselage and Vertical Tail to directional
Stability with suitable figures (L2 to L3)
3. Define stick free neutral and static free static margin and Solve the expression (L2 to L3)
4. Solve the expressionδ e free elevator deflection for stick free condition (L2 to L3)

131
Text Books

1. Perkins, C.D., and Hage, R.E., “Airplane Performance stability and Control”, John
Wiley Son Inc, New York, 1988.
2. Nelson, R.C. “Flight Stability and Automatic Control”, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 2007

Reference Books

1. Bandu N. Pamadi, `Performance, Stability, Dynamics and Control of Airplanes`, AIAA 2nd Edition Series, 2004.
2. John D. Anderson, Jr., “Introduction to flight” McGraw-Hill, International Editions, Aerospace Science Technology
Editions, 2000.
3. W.J. Duncan, The Principles of the Control and Stability of Aircraft, Cambridge University Press, 2016.

132
Module-2
Concluded

133