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Chapter 06 Statements

The document discusses various concepts related to mathematical thinking and statements including: definitions of statements, examples of true and false statements, implications and their truth tables, necessary and sufficient conditions, contrapositives, inverses, and quantifiers like "for all" and "there exists". Key logical concepts covered include negation, equivalence, and the relationships between implications, converses, and contrapositives.

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G Murtaza Dars
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61 views57 pages

Chapter 06 Statements

The document discusses various concepts related to mathematical thinking and statements including: definitions of statements, examples of true and false statements, implications and their truth tables, necessary and sufficient conditions, contrapositives, inverses, and quantifiers like "for all" and "there exists". Key logical concepts covered include negation, equivalence, and the relationships between implications, converses, and contrapositives.

Uploaded by

G Murtaza Dars
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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MATHEMATICAL

THINKING
Statements
Monty Hall
Problem
Statement
A statement is a sentence that
is either true or false – but not
both.
Some examples of Statements:

■ Ivan Slotvsky, the famous Irish builder of Madrid, is eating ham steaks and chutney at
this very moment.
■ Sometime in the next 39 years, I will have a creepy next door neighbor.
■ Vero is part of Promina
■ Patrick is a happily married man.
John greeted everybody with a smile.
(i) ‘2+2=4.’
(ii) ‘All cats are grey.’
(iii) ‘There are infinitely many primes.’
(iv) ‘0 = 1.’
(v) ‘Every integer greater than 4 is the sum of two
prime numbers.’
(vi) ‘Suppose x^2 = 2. Then x is not a rational
number.’
Not every sentence can be a statement as the
following two sentences show.

(i) ‘Open the window!’


(ii) ‘x is an odd number’
■The sentence below is right.

■The sentence above is wrong


Which statement is wrong?
(a) There are four coins on the table.
(b) There are two coins on the table.
(c) There are three coins on the table.
(d) There is a coin on the table.
Negation of a statement

The negation of statement A is the


statement that is false when A is true.
Truth Table
Connectives
∧
∨ 
Equivalent
Statements
Construct a truth table to show that ‘not
(A or B)’ is equivalent to ‘(not A) and (not
B)’.
Mathematics consists of propositions of the
form: P implies Q, but you never ask
whether P is true.

Bertrand Russell
True/False
(i) If I am Winston Churchill, then I am English.
(ii) If I am English, then I am Winston Churchill.
(iii) If I am President George Washington, then I am the first President of the
United
States of America.
(iv) If a < b, then
(v) If a < c, then a < b.
(vi) If x is even, thenis even.
Write in the implication form

■ ‘The sum of two even numbers is even.’


■ ‘All prime numbers greater than two are odd.’
■ ‘All the cows are black’
■ ‘A number next to odd number is an even’
Show that the truth tables for A⇒B and
‘not(A) or B’ are the same.
The negation of an implication is
not another implication.
Different ways to say P implies Q

• p implies q
• If p, q
• p only if q
• p is a sufficient condition for q
• q if p
• q whenever p
• q is a necessary condition for p
‘If you don’t tidy your room, then
you won’t get ice-cream.’

‘If it rains, then I won’t go.’


‘If I am Winston Churchill, then I am English.’

‘If I am notWinston Churchill, then I am not English.’


The inverse of the implication ‘If A,
then B’ is ‘If not(A), then not(B).’
‘A⇒B’ is not equivalent to ‘not(A)⇒
not(B)’.

i.e. A statement and its inverse are not


equivalent.
‘If you are a mathematician, then you are
intelligent’,
Necessary and sufficient
A necessary condition is one which must hold for a conclusion to be true. It does not
guarantee that the result is true.
In other words ‘A is necessary for B’ means that ‘B is true only if A is true’. We know
that this latter is the same as B⇒A.
Examples
(i) Being an article of clothing is necessary for being a glove.
(ii) x ≤ 0 is necessary for x = −2.
(iii) For a triangle to be an equilateral triangle (all angles equal) it is necessary that it be
an isosceles triangle (two angles equal).

*A necessary condition is one that is needed for something to be true.


A sufficient condition is one which guarantees the conclusion is true. The conclusion may
be true even if the condition is not satisfied
In other words ‘A is sufficient for B’ means ‘B is true if A is true’. This is the same as A⇒B.
Examples (i) Being a glove is sufficient for being an article of clothing. Note that being a glove is
not necessary for being an article of clothing.
(ii) x = −2 is sufficient for x ≤ 0.
(iii) For a triangle to be an isosceles triangle it is sufficient that it be an equilateral triangle.
Note that the triangle does not have to be isosceles to be equilateral.

*A sufficient condition is one that is enough to guarantee a statement is true.


The contrapositive
The contrapositive of the
statement ‘A⇒B’ is
‘ not(B)⇒ not(A)’.

*Surprisingly this is equivalent to A⇒B! That is, we can replace A⇒B by not(B)⇒ not(A).
(i) ‘If I am Winston Churchill, then I am English’ has contrapositive ‘If am not English,
then I am not Winston Churchill.’
(ii) ‘I am not American implies that I am not a Texan’ has contrapositive ‘If I am a Texan,
then I am American.’
(iii) ‘I am Jane implies that I am a woman’ has contrapositive ‘If I am not a woman, then
I am not Jane.’
(iv) ‘’ has contrapositive ‘.’
Write
Contrapositive
(i) If x = 2, then √x is irrational.
(ii) If x is prime, then x = 2 or x is odd.
(iii) If S is a square, then S is a rectangle.
(iv) A circle is an ellipse
But the fact that some geniuses were laughed at
does not imply that all who are laughed at are
geniuses. They laughed at Columbus, they
laughed at Fulton [steamboat inventor], they
laughed at the Wright brothers.
But they also laughed at Bozo the Clown.

Carl Sagan, Broca’s Brain, 1979


Converse of a statement is
Find Converse

(a) If my cat is black, then not all cats are grey.


(b) If x is even, then is even.
(c) If I am a Corsican, then I am Napoleon.
What is another name for the inverse of
the converse?
If A=⇒B and B=⇒A are both true, we say
that A and B are logically equivalent
statements and write A⇐⇒B. The sign ⇐⇒ is
read as ‘if and only if ’ and the statement
is called a bi conditional statement.
The integer n is even if and only if n + 1
is odd.
You can fool all the people some of the
time, and some of the people all the time,
but you cannot fool all the people all the
time.
Abraham Lincoln
For all – the universal quantifier

The phrase ‘for all’ is the universal quantifier. It is


denoted ∀. (This is an upside down
A. Think of the A in ‘All’ to remember this.)
(i) ‘For all x ∈ R, x2 ≥ 0.’ This says that the square of a real number is positive.
(ii) Let S be a subset of R and U be a real number. ‘For all s ∈ S ⊆ R, s ≤ U.’ This
says that every element of a set S is less than or equal to the number U.
(iii) Let O be the set of odd numbers. ‘For all x ∈ O, x2 + 1 is odd.’ This says that, for
odd x, the number x2 + 1 is also odd. (This is false, by the way.)
(iv) ‘For all rational numbers x and y, the product xy and sum x + y are rational.’
Symbolic version
There exists – the existential quantifier

The phrase ‘there exists’ is the existential quantifier. It is


denoted ∃. (This is a backward
E. Think of the E in ‘Exists’ to remember it.)
(i) ‘There exists x ∈ Z such that x2 = 4.’ This is true as x = 2 satisfies x2 = 4. Note
that x = −2 also satisfies the equation. Thus, saying there exists an x does not mean
that there is only one such x.
(ii) ‘There exists x ∈ Z such that x2 = 5.’ This is not true.
(iii) ‘∃x ∈ Z(x2 − 4x + 3 = 0).’Again true, just solve the equation to see this.

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