HVAC Systems

HVAC BMS Eng. Ahmed Moustafa

INTRODUCTION
HVAC: Heating – Ventilating – Air Conditioning

HVAC Main Operations:

 Heating
 Cooling
 Dehumidification
 Humidification
 Ventilation
 Filtration
THERMAL COMFORT
Thermal comfort is the condition of mind that expresses satisfaction with the thermal
environment and is assessed by subjective evaluation.
THERMAL COMFORT –
INFLUENCING FACTORS
1. Metabolic Rate (1 met = 58.2 W/m²)
2. Clothing Insulation
3. Air Temperature (Dry Bulb Temperature)
4. Mean Radiant Temperature
5. Air Speed (0.2 to 0.5 m3/s)
6. Relative Humidity (30% to 60% : Old Style)
7. Natural Ventilation (Indoor Air Quality: CO2 Level 350-1,000 ppm)
HEAT LOSSES
HEATING EQUIPMENT
HEATING EQUIPMENT
HEATING EQUIPMENT
HEATING EQUIPMENT
HEATING EQUIPMENT
HEATING EQUIPMENT
HEATING EQUIPMENT
COOLING EQUIPMENT – AIR
HANDLING SYSTEMS
DEHUMIDIFICATION
Cooling Units (Below Dew Point)

Sorption Units (silica gel,

activated alumina or hygroscopic
salts, or a spray of lithium
chloride brine or glycol solution)
HUMIDIFICATION
Humidifiers in air handling systems
typically inject steam directly into the air
stream (steam injection), spray atomized
water into the air stream (atomizing), or
evaporate heated water from a pan in the
duct into the air stream passing through the
duct (pan humidification).
VENTILATION – 100%
OUTDOOR AIR
VENTILATION – MIXED
RETURN AIR
FILTRATION
Mechanical filters
 High-efficiency particulate air (HEPA)
 Standard-efficiency particulate air

Electrostatic precipitation filters

FILTRATION - HEPA
FILTRATIO
N - HEPA
FILTRATION - MECHANICAL
FILTRATION - ELECTROSTATIC
CONTROL SYSTEM
CONTROLLED VARIABLES
In a room heated by air moving through a hot water coil, for example, the thermostat
measures the temperature (controlled variable) of the room air (controlled medium)
at a specified location. As the room cools, the thermostat operates a valve that
regulates the flow (manipulated variable) of hot water (control agent) through the
coil. In this way, the coil furnishes heat to warm the room air.
CONTROL SYSTEM
CONTROL LOOP
A control loop consists of an input sensing element, such as a temperature sensor; a
controller that processes the input signal and produces an output signal; and a final
control element, such as a valve, that operates according to the output signal.
CONTROL SYSTEM
CONTROL LOOP
HVAC applications use two types of control loops: open and closed.

An open-loop system assumes a fixed relationship between a controlled condition

and an external condition.

A closed-loop system relies on measurement of the controlled variable to vary the

controller output.
CONTROL SYSTEM
OPEN-LOOP CONTROL LOOP
CONTROL SYSTEM
OPEN-LOOP CONTROL LOOP
An example of open-loop control would be the control of perimeter radiation heating
based on an input from an outdoor air temperature sensor.
A circulating pump and boiler are energized when an outdoor air temperature drops
to a specified setting, and the water temperature or flow is proportionally controlled
as a function of the outdoor temperature.
An open-loop system does not take into account changing space conditions from
internal heat gains, infiltration/exfiltration, solar gain, or other changing variables in
the building.
CONTROL SYSTEM
CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL
LOOP
CONTROL SYSTEM
CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL
LOOP
CONTROL SYSTEM
CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL LOOP
An example of closed-loop control would be the temperature of discharge air in a duct determining
the flow of hot water to the heating coils to maintain the discharge temperature at a controller set-
point.
In this example, the sensing element measures the discharge air temperature and sends a feedback
signal to the controller.
The controller compares the feedback signal to the set-point.
Based on the difference, or deviation, the controller issues a corrective signal to a valve, which
regulates the flow of hot water to meet the process demand. Changes in the controlled variable thus
reflect the demand. The sensing element continues to measure changes in the discharge air
temperature and feeds the new condition back into the controller for continuous comparison and
correction.
CONTROL METHODS
ANALOG AND DIGITAL CONTROL
CONTROL METHODS
ANALOG AND DIGITAL CONTROL
CONTROL MODES
Two-position
 Heat Anticipation
 Time Proportioning
Step
Floating Control
Proportional
Proportional-integral
Proportional-integral-derivative Control
Adaptive Control
BASIC TWO-
POSITION
CONTROL
TIMED TWO-
POSITION
CONTROL
TIMED TWO-POSITION
CONTROL
HEAT ANTICIPATION
In electromechanical control, timed two-position control can be achieved by adding
a heat anticipator to a bimetal sensing element.
TIMED TWO-POSITION
CONTROL
TIME PROPORTIONING
Heat is introduced into the
space using on/off cycles
based on the actual heat load
on the building and
programmable time cycle
settings.
This method reduces large
temperature swings caused by
a large total lag and achieves
a more even flow of heat.
TIMED TWO-POSITION
CONTROL
Droop in heating control
is a lowering of the
control point as the load
on the system increases.
In cooling control, droop
is a raising of the control
point.
In digital control systems,
droop is adjustable and
can be set as low as one
degree or even less.
STEP CONTROL
STEP CONTROL
FLOATING CONTROL
Floating control is a variation of two-position control and is often called “three-
position control”.
Floating control requires a slow-moving actuator and a fast-responding sensor
selected according to the rate of response in the controlled system.
Floating control keeps the control point near the set-point at any load level, and can
only be used on systems with minimal lag between the controlled medium and the
control sensor.
Floating control is used primarily for discharge control systems where the sensor is
immediately downstream from the coil, damper, or device that it controls.
FLOATING CONTROL
FLOATING CONTROL
PROPORTIONAL CONTROL
PROPORTIONAL CONTROL
PROPORTIONAL CONTROL
The throttling range is the amount of change in the controlled variable required to
drive the loop output from 0 to 100%
The amount of change is expressed in degrees Fahrenheit for temperature, in
percentages for relative humidity, and in pounds per square inch or inches of water
for pressure.
For some controllers, throttling range is referred to as “proportional band”.
Proportional band is throttling range expressed as a percentage of the controller
sensor span:
PROPORTIONAL CONTROL
Proportional band and throttling range, in digital control systems, are often
expressed in degrees.
“Gain” is a term often used in industrial control systems for the change in the
controlled variable.
Gain is the reciprocal of proportional band:
PROPORTIONAL CONTROL
The output of the controller is proportional to the deviation of the control point from
set-point.
A proportional controller can be mathematically described by:
PROPORTIONAL CONTROL -
RESET CONTROL
Reset is a control technique
available in proportional control in
which a secondary, or compensation,
sensor resets the set-point of the
primary sensor.
(Cascade Control)
An example of reset would be the
outdoor temperature resetting the
discharge temperature of a fan
system so that the discharge
temperature increases as the outdoor
temperature decreases.
PROPORTIONAL CONTROL -
RESET CONTROL
PROPORTIONAL
-INTEGRAL
(PI) CONTROL
PROPORTION
AL-INTEGRAL
(PI) CONTROL
PROPORTIONAL-INTEGRAL (PI)
CONTROL
PROPORTIONAL-INTEGRAL (PI)
CONTROL
PROPORTIONAL-INTEGRAL-
DERIVATIVE
(PID) CONTROL
ENHANCED PROPORTIONAL-
INTEGRAL-DERIVATIVE
(EPID) CONTROL
Two basic EPID functions are start value and error ramp time.
The start value EPID setpoint sets the output to a fixed value at startup.
For a VAV air handling system supply fan, a suitable value might be twenty percent, a value
high enough to get the fan moving to prove operation to any monitoring system and to allow
the motor to self-cool.
For a heating, cooling, and ventilating air handling unit sequence, a suitable start value
would be thirty-three percent, the point at which the heating, ventilating (economizer), and
mechanical cooling demands are all zero.
The error ramp time determines the time duration during which the PID error (setpoint minus
input) is slowly ramped, linear to the ramp time, into the PID controller. The controller thus
arrives at setpoint in a tangential manner without overshoot, undershoot, or cycling.
ENHANCED PROPORTIONAL-
INTEGRAL-DERIVATIVE
(EPID) CONTROL
ADAPTIVE CONTROL
The methods used to modify the gains or parameters are determined by the type of
adaptive algorithm.
Neural networks are used in some adaptive algorithms.
Adaptive control is also used in energy management programs such as optimum
start.
The optimum start program enables an HVAC system to start as late as possible in
the morning and still reach the comfort range by the time the building is occupied for
the lease energy cost.
To determine the amount of time required to heat or cool the building, the optimum
start program uses factors based on previous building response, HVAC system
characteristics, and current weather conditions.
PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS -
LOAD
Four major types of disturbances can affect the quality of control:
 Supply disturbances
 Demand disturbances
 Set-point changes
 Ambient (environmental) variable changes
PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS -
LOAD
PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS -
LAG
PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS -
MEASUREMENT LAG
Dynamic error, static error, reproducibility, and dead zone all contribute to
measurement lag.
Because a sensing element cannot measure changes in the controlled variable
instantly, dynamic error occurs and is an important factor in control.
PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS -
CAPACITANCE
PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS -
CAPACITANCE
PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS -
CAPACITANCE
PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS -
RESISTANCE
PROCESS
CHARACTERISTI
CS - DEAD TIME
CONTROL APPLICATION
GUIDELINES
The following are considerations when determining control requirements:
Whether control is digital or not.
The degree of accuracy required and the amount of offset, if any, that is acceptable.
The type of load changes expected, including their size, rate, frequency, and
duration.
The system process characteristics, such as time constants, number of time lag
elements, and reaction rate.
The degree of central monitoring and control desired.
CONTROL APPLICATION
GUIDELINES
CONTROL SYSTEM
COMPONENTS
Sensing Elements
 Temperature Sensing Elements
 Pressure Sensing Elements
 Moisture Sensing Elements
 Flow Sensors
 Proof-of-operation Sensors
 Gas Sensors
Transducers
Controllers
Actuators
Auxiliary Equipment
TEMPERATURE SENSING
ELEMENTS
TEMPERATURE SENSING
ELEMENTS
TEMPERATURE SENSING
ELEMENTS - THERMOCOUPLE
TEMPERATURE SENSING
ELEMENTS - THERMOCOUPLE
Thermocouple probes are available with one of three main junction types: grounded, insulated
or exposed.
In an ungrounded or insulated probe the thermocouple junction is isolated from the outer
sheath material, this reduces any electrical interference and provides a stable reading but results
in a slower response time and is often more expensive than grounded or exposed alternatives.
At the tip of a grounded thermocouple, the thermocouple junction is physically attached and is
an integral part of the outer sheath. Response time is faster than that of an ungrounded junction
as a result of good heat transfer from the sheath to the thermocouple junction; however readings
can sometimes be unstable.
An exposed junction either has no outer sheath or the thermocouple junction extends beyond
the sheath. They are not recommended for use in corrosive environments but offer a very fast
response time at a low cost in the right application.
TEMPERATURE SENSING
ELEMENTS - THERMOCOUPLE
TEMPERATURE SENSING
ELEMENTS - RTD
TEMPERATURE
SENSING
ELEMENTS -
RTD
TEMPERATURE SENSING
ELEMENTS - RTD
TEMPERATURE SENSING
ELEMENTS - RTD
PRESSURE SENSING
ELEMENTS
Pressure sensing elements respond to pressure relative to a perfect vacuum (absolute
pressure sensors), atmospheric pressure (gage pressure sensors), or a second system
pressure (differential pressure sensors), such as across a coil or filter.
PRESSURE SENSING
ELEMENTS
Static pressure is the pressure of fluids or
gases that are stationary or not in motion
(Point A)
Dynamic pressure is the pressure exerted
by a fluid or gas when it impacts on a
surface or an object due to its motion or
flow (here = B-A)
Impact pressure (total pressure) is the sum
of the static and dynamic pressures on a
surface or object (Point B)
PRESSURE SENSING
ELEMENTS
Energy saving standards
In ducts & rooms
Clean room systems
Precise temperature compensation
High repeatability
Best sensitivity at lowest readings (<5 Pa)
PRESSURE SENSING
ELEMENTS
Air intake filters
Clean air filters
Sensible, accurate & reliable filter monitoring
Altitude independent readings
Optional air temperature read out
PRESSURE SENSING
ELEMENTS
High accurate air volume measurement
with just one sensor
Unique accuracy and reproducibility
No restrictions in respect of the mounting
orientation
PRESSURE SENSING
ELEMENTS – DIAPHRAGM
SENSORS
The diaphragm units are
typically used on both water
and air systems
PRESSURE SENSING
ELEMENTS – DIAPHRAGM
SENSORS
PRESSURE SENSING
ELEMENTS – CAPACITANCE
SENSOR
Capacitive pressure sensors
typically use a thin diaphragm
as one plate of a capacitor.
Applied pressure causes the
diaphragm to deflect and the
capacitance to change.
PRESSURE SENSING
ELEMENTS – INDUCTIVE
SENSOR
Several configurations based on varying inductance
or inductive coupling are used in pressure sensors.
They all require AC excitation of the coil(s) and, if
a DC output is desired, subsequent demodulation
and filtering.
The linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
types have a fairly low frequency response due to
the necessity of driving the moving core of the
differential transformer.
The LVDT uses the moving core to vary the
inductive coupling between the transformer primary
and secondary.
PRESSURE SENSING
ELEMENTS – SELECTING
CRITERIA
What is the selecting Criteria for a Pressure Sensor?

(Assignment)
MOISTURE SENSING
ELEMENTS
A humidity sensor (or hygrometer)
senses, measures and reports the
relative humidity in the air.
It therefore measures both
moisture and air temperature.
Relative humidity is the ratio of
actual moisture in the air to the
highest amount of moisture that
can be held at that air temperature.
The warmer the air temperature is,
the more moisture it can hold.
MOISTURE SENSING
ELEMENTS
MOISTURE SENSING
ELEMENTS - CAPACITIVE
Humidity / dew sensors use capacitive measurement,
which relies on electrical capacitance.
Electrical capacity is the ability of two nearby
electrical conductors to create an electrical field
between them.
The sensor is composed of two metal plates and
contains a non-conductive polymer film between them.
This film collects moisture from the air, which causes
the voltage between the two plates to change.
These voltage changes are converted into digital
readings showing the level of moisture in the air.
MOISTURE SENSING
ELEMENTS - RESISTIVE
This hygrometer type utilizes resistivity change
with respect to humidity for relative humidity
measurement.
It uses hygrometric salt material such as LiCl
(Lithium Chloride) for this purpose.
Resistance of this material changes to wide range
from 104 to 109 Ohms with humidity change from
100% to 0% respectively.
Higher relative humidity will result into more
moisture absorption by LiCl material.
This will lower the resistance of the material and
vice versa.
FLOW SENSORS
FLOW SENSORS
FLOW SENSORS
ORIFICE PLATE METER
TURBINE METER
PASSIVE FLOW METER
PROOF-OF-
OPERATION
SENSORS
PROOF-OF-OPERATION
SENSORS
TRANSDUCERS
CONTROLLERS
CONTROL ACTION AND
NORMAL POSITION
Direct Acting
Reverse Acting
 CONTROL ACTION AND
NORMAL POSITION

NC NO
Heating valve or
RA DA
damper
Cooling valve or
DA RA
damper
VALVES – GLOBE VALVES
VALVES – BALL VALVE
BUTTERFLY VALVE
TOW-WAY
VALVES VS.
THREE-WAY
VALVES
TOW – WAY VALVE
Linear Valve
Equal Percentage Valve
Quick Opening
TOW – WAY VALVE
Linear Valve
Equal Percentage Valve
Quick Opening
THREE- WAY VALVE
Mixing Valve
Diverting Valve
THREE- WAY VALVE
Mixing Valve
Diverting Valve
‫‪VALVE SIZING‬‬
‫لكل صمام قدرة معينة في تدفق السائل من خالله و هذا عامل التدفق(‪ )flow coefficient‬يدعي (‪)Cv‬‬
‫‪ : Cv‬هو ك‪u‬مية ا‪uu‬لمياه‪ u‬ا‪uu‬لمتدفقعبر ا‪uu‬لصمام‪ u‬عندما ي‪uu‬كونف‪uuu‬رقا‪uu‬لضغط هو (‪)psi 1‬‬

‫ولمعرفة حجم الصمام ‪:‬‬

‫يجب معرفة ‪flow rate‬‬
‫يجب معرفة فرق الضغط ‪differential pressure‬‬
WATER VALVES SIZING Cv = Flowrate
P∆√

ΔP the system can hold: FCU

𝑭𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 P1
𝜟 𝑷𝒗=
𝑪𝒗

P2 P1V P2V

P1V
Pv = P1v - P2v
P = P1 - P2
WATER VALVES SIZING Cv = Flowrate
P∆√

Authority should be between 30% to 50%

FCU

Δ 𝑷𝒗 P1
𝑨𝒖𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
Δ 𝑷𝒗 + Δ 𝑷

P2 P1V P2V

P1V
Pv = P1v - P2v
P = P1 - P2
DAMPERS
DAMPERS
DAMPERS
ACTUATORS
ACTUATORS
ACTUATORS
ACTUATORS
CHARACTERISTICS AND
ATTRIBUTES OF CONTROL
METHODS
PSYCHROMETRI
C CHART
FUNDAMENTALS
PSYCHROMETRI
C CHART
FUNDAMENTALS