Statistics in Public Administration: Introduction and Data Collection

Statistics in Public Administration
Introduction and Data Collection

 Why a manager needs to know about
statistics
 The growth and development of modern
statistics
 Key definitions
 Descriptive versus inferential statistics
(continued)
 Why data are needed

 Types of data and their sources
 Design of survey research
 Types of sampling methods
 Types of survey errors
Why a Manager Needs to
Know about Statistics
 To know how to properly present
information
 To know how to draw conclusions
about populations based on sample
information
 To know how to improve processes
 To know how to obtain reliable
forecasts
The Growth and Development
of Modern Statistics
Needs of government to
collect data on its citizens
The development of the

mathematics of probability
theory
The advent of the computer

Data
 Data: facts and figures from which
conclusions can be drawn
 Data set: the data that are collected for a
particular study
 Elements: may be people, objects, events, or
other entries
 Variable: any characteristic of an element
1-6
Data Continued
 Measurement: A way to assign a value of a

variable to the element
 Quantitative: the possible measurements of
the values of a variable are numbers that
represent quantities
 Qualitative: the possible measurements fall
into several categories
Cross-Sectional Data
 Cross-sectional data: Data collected at the
same or approximately the same point in time
 Time series data: data collected over
different time periods
Time Series Data
Data Sources
 Existing sources: data already gathered by public or
private sources
 Internet
 Library
 Private data sources
 Experimental and observational studies: data we
collect ourselves for a specific purpose
 Response variable: variable of interest
 Factors: other variables related to response variable
Descriptive Statistics and
Statistical Inference
 Descriptive statistics: the science of
describing the important aspects of a set of
measurements
 Statistical inference: the science of using a
sample of measurements to make
generalizations about the important aspects of
a population of measurements
Three Case Studies That Illustrate
Sampling and Statistical Inference
1. Estimating Cell Phone Costs

2. The Marketing Research Case: Rating a New
Bottle Design
3. The Car Mileage Case: Estimating Mileage
1-12
Ratio, Interval, Ordinal, and Nominative
Scales of Measurement (Optional)
 Quantitative variables
 Ratio variable: a quantitative variable measured on a
scale such that ratios of its value are meaningful and
there is an inherently defined zero value
 Interval variable: a quantitative variable where ratios
are not meaningful and there is no defined zero
 Qualitative variables (categorical)
 Ordinal variable: a qualitative variable for which there is
a meaningful ranking of the categories
 Nominative variable: a qualitative variable for which
there is no meaningful ranking of the categories
Key Definitions
 A population (universe) is the collection of
things under consideration
 A sample is a portion of the population
selected for analysis
 A parameter is a summary measure computed
to describe a characteristic of the population
 A statistic is a summary measure computed to
describe a characteristic of the sample
Populations and Samples
Population The set of all elements about which we
wish to draw conclusions (people,
objects or events)
Census An examination of the entire population

of measurements
Sample A selected subset of the units of a

population
Population and Sample
Population Sample
Use statistics to
summarize features
Use parameters to
summarize features
Inference on the population from the sample

Statistical Methods
 Descriptive statistics
 Collecting and describing data
 Inferential statistics
 Drawing conclusions and/or making
decisions concerning a population based
only on sample data
Descriptive Statistics
 Collect data
 e.g. Survey
 Present data
 e.g. Tables and graphs
 Characterize data
X i
 e.g. Sample mean = n
Inferential Statistics
 Estimation
 e.g.: Estimate the population
mean weight using the
sample mean weight
 Hypothesis testing
 e.g.: Test the claim that the
population mean weight is
120 pounds
Drawing conclusions and/or making decisions
concerning a population based on sample results.
Why We Need Data
 To provide input to survey
 To provide input to study
 To measure performance of service or
production process
 To evaluate conformance to standards
 To assist in formulating alternative courses
of action
 To satisfy curiosity
Data Sources
Primary Secondary
Data Collection Data Compilation
Print or Electronic
Observation Survey
Experimentation
Types of Data
D a ta
Categorical Num erical

(Q ualitative) (Q uantitative)
Discrete Continuous
Design of Survey Research
 Choose an appropriate mode of response
 Reliable primary modes
 Personal interview
 Telephone interview
 Mail survey
 Less reliable self-selection modes (not appropriate
for making inferences about the population)
 Television survey
 Internet survey
 Printed survey on newspapers and magazines
 Product or service questionnaires
(continued)
 Identify broad categories
 List complete and non-overlapping categories
that reflect the theme
 Formulate accurate questions
 Make questions clear and unambiguous. Use
universally-accepted definitions
 Test the survey
 Pilot test the survey on a small group of
participants to assess clarity and length
(continued)
 Write a cover letter

 State the goal and purpose of the survey
 Explain the importance of a response
 Provide assurance of respondent’s anonymity
 Offer incentive gift for respondent participation
Reasons for Drawing a Sample
 Less time consuming than a census
 Less costly to administer than a census
 Less cumbersome and more practical to
administer than a census of the targeted
population
Types of Sampling Methods
Samples
Non-Probability Probability Samples

Samples
Simple
Random Stratified
Judgement Chunk
Cluster
Systematic
Quota
Probability Sampling
 Subjects of the sample are chosen based on
known probabilities
Probability Samples
Simple
Systematic Stratified Cluster
Random
Simple Random Samples
 Every individual or item from the frame has
an equal chance of being selected
 Selection may be with replacement or without
replacement
 Samples obtained from table of random
numbers or computer random number
generators
Systematic Samples
 Decide on sample size: n
 Divide frame of N individuals into groups of k
individuals: k=n/n
 Randomly select one individual from the 1st
group
 Select every k-th individual thereafter
N = 64
n=8 First Group
k=8
Stratified Samples
 Population divided into two or more groups
according to some common characteristic
 Simple random sample selected from each
group
 The two or more samples are combined into
one
Cluster Samples
 Population divided into several “clusters,”
each representative of the population
 Simple random sample selected from each
 The samples are combined into one
Population
divided
into 4
clusters.
Advantages and Disadvantages
 Simple random sample and systematic sample
 Simple to use
 May not be a good representation of the
population’s underlying characteristics
 Stratified sample
 Ensures representation of individuals across the
entire population
 Cluster sample
 More cost effective
 Less efficient (need larger sample to acquire the
same level of precision)
Evaluating Survey Worthiness
 What is the purpose of the survey?
 Is the survey based on a probability sample?
 Coverage error – appropriate frame
 Nonresponse error – follow up
 Measurement error – good questions elicit
good responses
 Sampling error – always exists
Types of Survey Errors
Excluded from
 Coverage error frame.
Follow up on
 Non response error non responses.
 Sampling error Chance

differences from
sample to sample.
 Measurement error
Bad Question!
POPULATION AND
SAMPLES
Chap 1-37
SAMPLING
 It is very often in our daily life
Calmorin suggested a different formula to have a scientific
determination of sample size, the following formula is:
Ss = Sample size
N = Total number of population
V = The standard value (2.58) of 1 percent of
probability with 0.99 reliability
Se = Sampling error (0.01)
P = The largest possible proportion (0.50)

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Statistics in Public Administration

Introduction and Data Collection

 Why data are needed

The development of the

The advent of the computer

 Measurement: A way to assign a value of a

1. Estimating Cell Phone Costs

Census An examination of the entire population

Sample A selected subset of the units of a

Inference on the population from the sample

Categorical Num erical

 Write a cover letter

Non-Probability Probability Samples

 Sampling error Chance

P = The largest possible proportion (0.50)

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