2.

METALLURGY
1. Galvanizing fundamental
2. Other metal coating : Surface
treatment
 2.1 Galvanizing fundamentals
• Galvanization, or galvanisation is the process of applying a
protective zinc coating to steel or iron, to prevent rusting.
• Hot dip galvanizing is a method of submerge steel or iron
in a bath of molten zinc.
• Galvanizing protects:
– corrosive substances from reaching the more delicate part of
the metal.
– in a way if the coating is scratched, the exposed steel will still
be protected by the remaining zinc.
– base metal by corroding before iron.
2.1 Galvanizing fundamentals

Figure 8. Model of the Hot-dip Galvanizing process

 2.2 Galvanizing process
• Surface preparation
– The purpose is to obtain the cleanest possible steel surface
by removing all of the oxides and other contaminating
residues.
– Thorough surface preparation, zinc will not react with
unclean steel.
• Degreasing/Caustic Cleaning
– The steel is immersed in an acid degreasing bath or caustic
solution to remove organic contaminants such as dirt, oil,
and grease from the surface of the steel.
– After degreasing process, the steel is rinsed with water
 2.2 Galvanizing process
• Pickling
– The steel is “pickled” in a dilute
solution of either hydrochloric or
sulfuric acid to removes oxides and
mill scale.
– After oxidation has been removed
from the steel, it is again rinsed
with water and sent to the final Figure 9. Pickling
process
step of the surface preparation.
 2.2 Galvanizing process
• Fluxing
– The steel is dipped in the flux.
– The purpose of the flux is to clean the steel of all
oxidation developed since the pickling of the steel
and to create a protective coating to prevent any
oxidation before entering the galvanizing kettle.
 2.3 Galvanized coating
• A typical galvanized coating is shown in figure
below.

Figure 10. Galvanized coating

 2.3 Galvanized coating characteristic

• Typical used of galvanized iron and steel:

– Cornices and other wall ornaments
– Door and window hoods
– Decorative formed shingles and pantiles designed
to imitate other materials
– Roof ornaments such as crestings and finials
– Sheetmetal for flashing, and gutters and
downspouts.
– Hot-dipped galvanized steel nails.
 2.3 Galvanized coating characteristic
• Benefits
– Lowest first cost.
Galvanizing is lower in first cost than many other commonly specified protective
coatings for steel. (The application cost of labour intensive coatings such as
painting has risen far more than the cost of factory operations such as
galvanizing.)
– Less maintenance/Lowest long term cost.
Even in cases where the initial cost of galvanizing is higher than alternative
coatings, galvanizing is almost invariably cheapest in the long term (because it
lasts longer and needs less maintenance). 
Maintenance causes problems and adds to costs when structures are located in
remote areas, and when plant shutdown or disruption to production is involved.
– Long life.
The life expectancy of galvanized coatings on typical structural members is far in
excess of 50 years in most rural environments, and 20 to 25 years plus, even in
severe urban and coastal exposure.
 2.3 Galvanized coating characteristic
• Benefits
– Reliability.
Galvanizing is carried out to Australian / New Zealand Standard 4680,
and standard, minimum coating thicknesses are applied.
Coating life and performance are reliable and predictable.
– Toughest coating
A galvanized coating has a unique metallurgical structure which gives
outstanding resistance to mechanical damage in transport, erection and
service.
– Automatic protection for damaged areas.
Galvanized coatings corrode preferentially to steel, providing cathodic or
sacrificial protection to small areas of steel exposed through damage.
Unlike organic coatings, small damaged areas need no touch up.
 2.3 Galvanized coating characteristic
• Benefits
– Complete protection.
Every part of a galvanized article is protected, even
recesses, sharp corners and inaccessible areas.
No coating applied to a structure or fabrication after
completion can provide the same protection.
– Ease of inspection.
Galvanized coatings are assessed readily by eye, and simple
non-destructive thickness testing methods can be used.
The galvanizing process is such that if coatings appear
sound and continuous, they are sound and continuous.
 2.3 Galvanized coating characteristic
• Benefits
– Faster erection time
As galvanized steel members are received they are ready for
use.
No time is lost on-site in surface preparation, painting and
inspection.
When assembly of the structure is complete, it is
immediately ready for use, or for the next construction stage.
– A full protective coating can be applied in minutes
The galvanizing process is not dependent on weather
conditions
2.4   Factors affecting galvanizing quality and
service
• Surface Condition
Steel that is heavily rusted will be slow to pickle and result in costly
processing delays.
Badly rusted steel should be abrasive blasted prior to delivery for galvanizing.
While heavily pitted steel will galvanized satisfactorily after cleaning, the
galvanized coating will reflect the profile of the rough steel surface.
• Previously coated steel.
Steel that has been previously painted with architectural or industrial paint
systems, should be cleaned by abrasive blasting prior to delivery for
galvanizing, as these types of paints are difficult to remove in the pre-
treatment process.
A range of hollow and light structural sections are manufactures with a thin
zinc coating already applied.
These are frequently used with black steel sections in fabrications to be hot-
dip galvanized.
2.4   Factors affecting galvanizing quality and
service
• Type of product
Heritage products that are may be brazed, riveted or soldered, or
manufactured from wrought or cast iron may not be able to be
galvanized.
Riveted or brazed connection can be galvanized provided steel rivets
are used.
Aluminium pop rivets will dissolve in the pre-treatment chemicals.
Solder will melt well below the temperature of the galvanizing bath.
Old wrought of cast iron may contain voids or nonmetallic inclusions
that will trap air or pre-treatment chemicals in the surface of the
item, creating a risk of blow-outs or more serious steam explosions
that could damage or destroy the item.
2.4   Factors affecting galvanizing quality and
service
• Weld Quality
Welding slag is inert being a ceramic material, and will not be
removed during the pre-treatment process.
Welding slag left on fabrications will give rise to `misses’ in the
galvanized coating.
Weld splatter will be galvanized along with the steel to which it is
attached, creating a rough and unsightly area adjacent to the weld.
Poor quality welds with inadequate penetration will allow pre-
treatment chemicals to penetrate the joint.
The poor weld quality will be manifested after galvanizing as
staining around the weld joint occurs as these chemicals leach out
of the joint.
2.4   Factors affecting galvanizing quality and
service
• Very thick sections
Very thick cast steel sections (over 100 mm thick) such as
counterweights or bollards can cause problems in the hot-
dip galvanizing process.
This occurs because their mass of the item is such that the
zinc freezes around it, and remains frozen for several
minutes until the heat of the steel increases to over 420oC
– the melting point of zinc.
This phenomenon can result in the preflux coating on the
steel surface deteriorating and not performing effectively.
This will cause misses in the galvanized coating.
2.4   Factors affecting galvanizing quality and
service
• Vent and drain hole locations
The location of vent and drain holes on hollow or partly closed
sections, other than causing air locks or zinc puddling if poorly
located, can cause unsightly runs or blowouts on the surface of the
item if not correctly located or sized.
• Lifting points
For larger items, the provision of lifting point for transporting the work
through the galvanizing process will improve appearance and coating
quality, and minimise the risk of handling damage in the process.
If chains have to be used to support the work, ‘chain marks’ will be
unavoidable.
This is particularly undesirable on larger circular sections such as
poles, where there will be a large area of contact between the lifting
chains and the surface of the item.
 2.5 Design basics of galvanizing
• Provide an additional clearance equal to 4x the coating thickness on threaded
fasteners.
• Provide about 1mm extra clearance on all matting surfaces.
• Do not attempt to galvanize low melting point soldered joints.  They will collapse.
• Do not use silicon - containing anti splatter paints.  The galvanizing will not "take"
on these paints.
• Remove moulding sand from castings by grit blasting.  Galvanizing will not "take"
to sand.
• Avoid overlapping surfaces if possible.  If you cannot avoid them, make sure you
follow the venting guidance.
• Remember the galvanizer must lift and turn your fabrication.  Make sure you
provide lifting points for them to use.
• Do not ask your galvanizer to galvanize fabrications which are very stiff in one
plane but not in another.  They will almost certainly distort.
• Avoid large unsupported areas of this gauge sheet.  They will probably distort.
2.6 Galvanizing rules to avoid distortion
• Welding plays an essential part in the fabrication of
structural steel items.
• Most structural steel items can be successfully galvanised,
some of them tend to distort when welding is followed by
the hot dip galvanizing.
• A designer should follow certain rules of:
– Avoid designs that require double-end dipping to be able to fit
into the galvanizing bath
– Use symmetrical sections e.g square or round in preference to
angle and channels
– Use sections of nearly equal thickness at joints
2.6 Galvanizing rules to avoid distortion
• For welding fabrication, welding procedures to
minimize residual stresses should be applied.
• It involves:
– Avoid over welding
– Plan and follow a balanced welding sequence
– Use as few weld passes as possible
– Use opposing weld shrinkage forces to balance each
other
– Use backstep welding or a staggered welding sequence
Protective coatings have been used
to mitigate corrosion for years and
new technology is making coatings
better and better every year.
This has been a very basic and
simple explanation of how coatings
help to protect steel and concrete
from corrosion. The subject is
much more complex that what I
have presented here.
 Major Surface Treatments

• Finishing and Polishing

• Coatings
– Conversion Coatings (oxidation, anodizing)
– Thermal Coatings (carburizing – flame spraying)
– Metal Coatings (electrochemical, electroless)
– Deposition
• Physical Vapor Deposition
• Chemical Vapor Deposition
– Organic
 Conversion Coatings
• Oxidation
• Phosphate Coatings
• Chrome Coatings
 Conversion Coatings - Oxidation
• Gun-bluing
– Heat steel to 700 deg F in steam
• Oxidation or oil
– Blue coating offers some
– Not all oxides are corrosion resistance, but little
wear benefit
detrimental – many • Chemical Baths – similar in nature
to gun-bluing
are tightly adhering • Black Oxide – chemical
leading to passivation application
– Typically applied to steel, copper
and hardening of and stainless steel
• Anodizing – electrochemical
surface conversion
– Usually done to Aluminum
• Al2O3 – 2-25 mm thick typically
• Chromium in Stainless – Multiple colors possible
– Improved Corrosion and Wear
steel rapidly corrodes Resistance
to passivate the
Conversion Coatings – Phosphate Coating

• Immersion in a Zn-P bath with Phosphoric acid

causes growth of a crystalline zinc phosphate layer
– Iron, Zinc or Manganese Phosphate layer formed
• Typically applied to C-steel, low alloy steel and cast
irons
– Sometimes applied to Zinc, Cadmium, Aluminum and Tin
• Typically very thin ~ 2.5 mm
 Conversion Coatings – Chrome Coating
• Food cans
• Immersion in a chromic acid bath (pH ~ 1.8) with
other chemicals to coat surface
• Known carcinogen chemicals used, so alternatives
are currently under research
– Molybdate chemicals currently best subsititute for
aluminum coatings
• Very good to minimize atmospheric corrosion
– Many household goods – screws, hinges (yellow brown
appearance)
• Typically very thin < 2.5 mm
 Thermal Treatments
• Surface Heat Treatment
• Diffusion Coating
• Hot-Dip Coatings
• Weld Overlay Coatings
 Thermal Treatments – Surface Heat
Treatment
• Basic concept is to heat the surface to austenitic
range, then quench it to form surface martensite -
workpiece is steel
• Heating Methods
– Flame Treatment
– Induction Heating
• Copper coil wraps around part to heat by induction
– Electron Beam or Laser Beam Hardening
• Typically heat small area and allow the bulk solid heat capacity to
quench the small heated area
Thermal Treatments – Diffusion Coating

• With low carbon steel, the surface can be enriched by

diffusion of C or N into surface
• Carburizing
– Heat steel to austenitic range (850-950 ºC) in a carbon rich
environment, then quench and temper
• Nitriding
– Nitrogen diffusion into steels occurs around 500-560 ºC to form a
thin hard surface
– Good for Cr, V, W, and Mo steels. Will embrittle surface of
Aluminum.
• Metal Diffusion
– Chromizing – Chromium diffuses into surface to form corrosion
resistant layer.
• Take care with carbon steels as surface will decarburize
– Aluminizing – Used to increase the high temperature corrosion
resistance of steels and superalloys
 Thermal Treatments –
Hot-Dip Coatings
• These coatings are used for corrosion protection
• Galvanizing
– Parts are dipped into a molten zinc bath
• Galv-annealing
– Galvanized parts are then heat treated to ~500 ºC to form Fe-Zn inter-
metallic
• Used for metals that need spot welded to protect copper electrode from alloying
with zinc and reducing its life
• Zn-Al Coatings
– Gives a different corrosion protect and a more lustrous appearance (can
greatly reduce spangles easily observed on galvanized parts)
• Aluminum Coatings
– Alloyed with Si
– Coatings used on steel for high temperature applications that need a
lustrous appearance
• Example – Automobile exhaust
 Thermal Treatments –
Weld Overlay coatings
• Typically used to improve wear resistance by creating a hard
surface over a tough bulk body
• Hard Facing
– Weld buildup of parts – alloy composition controls final properties
– Examples – cutting tools, rock drills, cutting blades
– Cladding of material for corrosion resistance
• Thermal spraying
– Molten particle deposition – a stream of molten metal particles are
deposited on the substrate surface
– Major difference from hard facing is that the surface of the substrate is
not subjected to welding. Instead it just undergoes a bonding process
with the molten particles.
 Metal Coatings
• Electroplating
• Electroless Coatings
• Metallizing of Plastics and Ceramics
 Metal Coatings - Electroplating
• Used to increase wear and corrosion resistance
• Electrochemical process used to create a thin coating
bonding to substrate
• Process is slow so coating thickness can be closely
controlled (10-500 mm)
• Applications
– Tin and Zinc are deposited on steel for further working
– Zinc and Cadmium are deposited on parts for corrosion resistance
(Cadmium is toxic and can not be used for food applications)
– Copper is deposited for electrical contacts
– Nickel for corrosion resistance
– Chromium can be used to impart wear resistance to dies and reduce
adhesion to workpieces such as aluminum or zinc
– Precious metals for decoration or electronic devices
 Metal Coatings - Electroplating

• Electroplating is the mechanically bonding

of one metal to another for the purpose of
corrosion protection, decorative appeal,
hardness, electrical conductivity, reflectivity,
and/or wear resistance
• In a nut shell, plating modifies the surface
properties of the base metal to make it more
suitable for its intended use
 Typical Properties Achieved
Through Plating
• Corrosion • Electroforming
resistance • Electrical
• Appearance Resistance
• Abrasion • Reflectivity
resistance • Diffusion Barrier
• Lubricity
• Value
(silver/gold, • High Temp.
Resistance
etc)
• Solderability
 What happens to steel?
• Steel is the cheapest structural material
available for countless uses
• However, steel is not very resistant to
corrosion (red rust)

Red Rust

Steel Part
(Unplated)

Rust damages (pits) the surface of the base metal

 The Plating Tank
ZINC
Anode + BALLS (-) Cathode + Anode

Zn++ Zn++

Zn++ (-) Zn++

PART
Zn++
(-) Zn++

Zn++ Zn++
Zn++

Zinc
Plating
Solution
 What happens to zinc?
• Zinc metal will corrode (white corrosion) if not
protected by a chromate finish
• As the zinc corrodes, it fails to protect the base
metal and red rust of the base metal occurs

White corrosion

Zinc Plating

Steel Part

Rust damages (pits) the surface of the base metal

 ZINC PLATED PART

Chromate
Finish

Plated Metal (Zinc)

Steel Part

• The part is protected from corrosion by the

zinc plating
• The zinc plating is protected from corrosion by
the chromate finish
 TYPES OF CHROMATES
Hexavalent Trivalent
- Clear - Blue Bright (Clear)
- Yellow *Thin Film
- Bronze - Non-hex thick film
- Black passivates (non-
- Olive Drab / colored, black). Can
Green be dyed.
 Hexavalent Chromates
• Excellent corrosion protection properties
• Fairly inexpensive
• Easy / fast to apply @ room temperature
• Variety of colors
• Self-healing properties
• Can not be baked
• Carcinogenic / health issues
• Considered environmentally non-friendly
(do not meet ELV, RoHS, WEEE requirements)
 Why the elimination of
hexavalent chromium?

• To meet the requirements of Health

standard.
• Hexavalent chromium is carcinogenic
by nature. Hexavalent chromium
compounds can slip through cell
membranes and react with DNA causing
cell mutations/cancer.
• Hexavalent chromium is a strong
oxidant that poses a threat to biological
systems
 Non-Hexavalent Passivates

Cons:
• More expensive (contain expensive tri-
chromium compounds, organic acids, and
other metals)
• Must be heated to apply (typically 140oF)
• Slower to apply (increases cycle time)
• Not self healing (require additional top coats
for protection – more expense)
• Lower corrosion protection than hexavalents
(without topcoats/seals)
• Less color variety (non-colored & black)
 Metal Coatings – Electroless Coatings
• Part is submerged into an aqueous bath filled
with metal salts, reducing agents and catalysts
– Catalysts reduce metal to ions to form the coating
• Excellent for complex geometries as
deposition is uniform across surface regardless
of geometry (except very sharp corners (0.4
mm radii))
Metal Coatings -Electroless Nickel
Plating
• Has the appearance of
stainless steel
• Autocatalytic immersion
process
• Key characteristics:
– Heat treatable coating (to 68
Rc) very hard
– Non-porous
– Corrosion resistant
– .001” thick typical
– Withstand load to 45 ksi
• Can be applied to:
– steel and stainless steel,
iron, aluminum, titanium,
magnesium, copper, brass,
bronze, and nickel
Electroless Nickel vs. Chrome Plating
  ELECTROLESS NICKEL HARD CHROME

METAL DISTRIBUTION VERY GOOD POOR

1,000 HOURS 400 HOURS
CORROSION RESISTANCE
ASTM B117 ASTM B117

HARDNESS:      
   AS DEPOSITED 48-52 Rc 64-69 Rc
   HEAT TREAT 70 Rc 48-52 Rc

MELTING POINT 1800oF 2900oF

WEAR RESISTANCE GOOD VERY GOOD
CO-EFFICIENT OF FRICTION:    
   DYNAMIC 0.19 0.16
   STATIC 0.20 0.17
DUCTILITY 1-2% Very Low Almost 0
EFFLUENT COST RELATIVELY LOW HIGH
DEPOSITION RATE
.0002 - .0003 .001 - .002
(PER HOUR PER HOUR)
EFFECTIVE OF HYDROGEN
EMBRITTLEMENT ON PLATED FAIR/NOT SERIOUS USUALLY SERIOUS
COMPONENTS
 Metal Coatings –
Metallizing of Plastics and Ceramics
• Poor adhesion is the major challenge (As in all
coating processes, however it is more
challenging in this case.)
• Applications
– Decorative (plumbing fixtures, automotive parts),
reflectivity (headlights), electrical conduction
(electronic touchpads), and EMF shielding
 Vapor Deposition
• Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD)
– Thermal PVD
– Sputter Deposition
– Ion plating
• Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)
Physical Vapor Deposition – Thermal PVD

• Thermal PVD – also called Vacuum Deposition

– Coating material (typically metal) is evaporated by melting
in a vacuum
– Substrate is usually heated for better bonding
– Deposition rate is increased though the use of a DC current
(substrate is the anode so it attracts the coating material)
– Thin ~0.5 mm to as thick as 1 mm.
 Physical Vapor Deposition – Sputter
Deposition

• Vacuum chamber is usually backfilled with Ar gas

• Chamber has high DC voltage (2,000-6,000 V)
• The Ar becomes a plasma and is used to target the
deposition material. The impact dislodges atoms from the
surface (sputtering), which are then deposited on the
substrate anode
• If the chamber is full of oxygen instead of Ar, then the
sputtered atoms will oxidize immediately and an oxide will
deposit (called reactive sputtering)
Physical Vapor Deposition – Ion Plating

• Combination of thermal PVD and sputtering

• Higher rate of evaporation and deposition
• TiN coating is made this way (Ar-N2
atmosphere)
– The gold looking coating on many cutting tools to
decrease the friction, increase the hardness and
wear resistance
 Chemical Vapor Deposition
• Deposition of a compound (or element) produced by a
vapor-phase reduction between a reactive element and gas
– Produces by-products that must be removed from the process as
well
• Process typically done at elevated temps (~900ºC)
– Coating will crack upon cooling if large difference in thermal
coefficients of expansion
– Plasma CVD done at 300-700ºC (reaction is activated by plasma)
• Typical for tool coatings
• Applications
– Diamond Coating, Carburizing, Nitriding, Chromizing, Aluminizing
and Siliconizing processes
– Semiconductor manufacturing
 Organic Coatings - paint
• Enamels
– Form film primarily by solvent evaporation
– 30 % Volatile Organic Content (VOC)
• Lacquers – solvent evaporation
• Water-base paints – water evaporation,
therefore much better
• Powder Coating – superior – more detail to
follow
 Powder
Coating
• Fully formulated paint
ground into a fine
powder
• Powder is sprayed onto
part, retained by static
electricity
• Heat cured onto part
• Can virtually eliminate
VOCs
Teflon and dry lubricant coatings
• Sprayed, dipped or
tumbled to coat,
followed by heating to
bond
• Key characteristics:
– Low friction coefficient
(0.02 – 0.08)
– Can sustain load of 250
ksi
 Summary
• Don’t overlook coatings importance to overall
product performance
• Coating technology is very specialized – get a
couple of expert opinions before committing
 PAINTING OVER HOT
DIP GALVANIZED STEEL

By Rozaina Ismail
Duplex Coating System
• Is formed by painting or powder coating over hot-
dip galvanized steel.
• Used since 1940’s in Europe
• Low service life
• Low maintenance
HDG Specifications
GALVANIZED STEEL
SURFACE PREPARATION
1) Surface Cleaning
 to remove any dirt, grease or oils. At the same time, care must
be taken not to remove too much of the galvanized coating.
 different surface conditions requires a different level of
cleaning.  If the surface condition cannot be determined, all
cleaning steps must be followed.  The steps to cleaning the
surface for each condition are as follows:
• Remove bumps, runs, and drips (newly, partially
weathered)
• Remove organic materials (partially weathered, fully
weathered)
•  Rinse and dry (all conditions)
GALVANIZED STEEL SURFACE
PREPARATION
2) Profiling the Surface
Upon completion of cleaning, the galvanized surface must be profiled
to provide an anchor for the paint. Profiling the surface means to
roughen all surfaces to be painted to promote better paint adhesion.
There are four potential methods to profile the surface for paint:
sweep blasting, wash primer, acrylic pretreatment, and surface
grinding.
sweep wash acrylic surface
blasting primer pretreatment grinding

In order to provide a good adhesion profile for the paint, the
galvanized surface must be flat with no protrusions and slightly
roughened to provide an anchor
 GALVANIZED STEEL SURFACE
PREPARATION
sweep wash acrylic surface
blasting primer pretreatment grinding

• Sweep Blasting- Sweep blasting is the most common method, but

care is required to not damage the relatively soft zinc coating.  Sweep
blasting galvanized steel is done at an angle of 30 to 60 degrees. 

Sweep blasting is the

preferred method of
profiling because of the
soft nature of the zinc
surface.
 GALVANIZED STEEL SURFACE
PREPARATION
sweep wash acrylic surface
blasting primer pretreatment grinding

• Wash Primers-This treatment uses a metal conditioner to neutralize

surface oxides and hydroxides, as well as etch the galvanized surface.
Wash primers should be applied to the galvanized surface to form a
protective layer 7 to 13 microns thick.
• Acrylic Pretreatment-This treatment uses an acidic acrylic solution to
passivate the galvanized surface, as well as to roughen the smooth zinc
coating. Acrylic passivation should be applied approximately one micron
thick to a clean galvanized surface.
• Surface Grinding-Finally, if necessary, power tools such as grinders or
sanders can be used to roughen the surface of the galvanized steel to
produce a surface profile suitable for paint adhesion. A removal of up to 1
mil is acceptable, but the grinder should not be applied with enough
force to completely strip the zinc coating.
 PAINT SELECTION
• After the surface of the galvanized part has been cleaned and
roughened to provide a profile, the part is ready for painting.
• Paint can be applied by brushing or spraying onto the
galvanized surface.
• Painting should begin as soon as possible after cleaning and
profiling.
• There are a number of paint formulations compatible with hot-
dip galvanized coatings; however, because paint formulations
change constantly, consult the paint manufacturer for
compatibility as well as for recommendations  regarding air
conditions and application methods.
• The proper selection of a paint system for a certain
engineering need is the province of the architect and the
engineer.
DUPLEX SYSTEM
PERFORMANCE
• When hot-dip galvanized steel is painted, the duplex system
provides a more sophisticated manner of corrosion
protection.
• The galvanized coating protects the base steel by providing
both cathodic and barrier protection.
• The paint coating acts as a barrier protection for the hot-dip
galvanized coating and significantly reduces the corrosion
rate of the zinc.
• The overall affect on the base steel is that the duplex system
not only provides hot-dip galvanized life plus the paint life
but also provides a multiplication factor of 1.5 to 2.3 on the
sum of these two lifetimes.
HDP vs PAINT
 Adhesion
• A complex phenomenon related to physical and chemical forces
• The ability of a coating to adhere to the substrate or to a previous
coating
• There are many ways to evaluate degree of bonding.
But there is no single test to accurately and quantitatively
determine adhesion
• Many factors should be taken into account.
Conservative evaluations are recommended

68
 What is Being Measured?
• Coating strength at different planes
• Adhesion Strength - Bond strength between the substrate and
the coating and/or the coating layer to one another
• Cohesion Strength - Inner-strength of a coating layer

• Adhesion strength is highly variable

• No industry wide adhesion acceptance value
• Minimum adhesion values may be on a PDS or in a
specification

69
The Pull-Off Test
• A loading fixture (dolly) is glued to the
coating, then pulled by a portable tester.

• Determines:
• greatest tensile force that a surface area can bear before material is
detached, or
• whether the surface remains intact at a prescribed force (pass/fail).
• Scratch or knife adhesion results may not be comparable

70
Pull-Off Strength Test Method
• For metal substrates use:
• ASTM D 4541, Standard Test Method
for Pull-Off Strength of Coatings
Using Portable Adhesion Testers

• For concrete substrates use:

• ASTM D 7234, Standard Test Method for Pull-Off Strength of
Coatings on Concrete Using Portable Pull-Off Adhesion Testers

71
Portable Pull-off Adhesion Testers
• Mechanical (twist by hand)
• Hydraulic (oil pressure)
• Pneumatic (air pressure)

• Widely used by coatings manufacturers, specifiers,

inspectors, coating specialists.

72
Testing Equipment
• The following 5 devices are described:
• Method B: Fixed Alignment Type II (Mechanical)
• Method C: Self-Aligning Type III (Hydraulic)
• Method D: Self-Aligning Type IV (Pneumatic)
• Method E: Self-Aligning Type V (Hydraulic)
• Method F: Self-Aligning Type VI (Hydraulic)

• Results obtained by each test method may give

different results

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Test Method B
• Fixed Alignment Type II (Mechanical)

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Test Method C

• Self-Aligning Type III (Hydraulic)

• Load is applied through the center of the loading
dolly by a hydraulic piston and pin

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Test Method D
• Self-Aligning Type IV (Pneumatic)

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Test Method E
• Self-Aligning Type V (Hydraulic)

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Test Method F
• Self-Aligning Type VI (Hydraulic)

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ASTM D 4541 Overview
1. Select and clean the test site
2. Prepare the test dollies
3. Apply adhesive to dolly and/or
surface and allow to cure
4. Score around the dolly through
to the substrate (optional)
5. Connect an adhesion tester
and pull to failure or to a specified max force
6. Record the final pulling force and qualify the nature
of the failure

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 Apparatus
1. Adhesion Tester, commercially available, examples
are listed in Annex A1 - A5

a. Loading Fixtures
b. Detaching Assembly
c. Base (if needed by the adhesion tester)
d. Means of pulling the loading fixtures vertically
e. Timer to maintain 150 psi/s in 100s
f. Force indicator

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 Apparatus
2. Solvent
3. Sandpaper
4. Adhesive
5. Clamps
6. Cotton Swabs
7. Circular Hole Saw (optional)

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1 – Select and Clean Test Site
• A flat surface large enough to accommodate the
specified number of replicate test dollies
• For statistical purposes 3 test sites within a specified area are
typically required

• A rigid surface that can support the counter force

• Steel substrates less than 3.2 mm (⅛”) thickness usually reduce
pull-off strength

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1 – Select and Clean Test Site
• The surface should be lightly abraded to promote
adhesion of the adhesive
• Lightly roughen with fine sandpaper (400 grit or finer) or
abrasive pad, especially smooth or glossy surfaces
• Care must be taken to prevent damage or significant loss of
coating thickness

• Perform a SSPC-SP 1, Solvent Cleaning

• Remove residual dust with a solvent that does not degrade the
coating

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Loading Fixture Design

Fixed Alignment
Type II
Self-Aligning Self-Aligning
Type III Self-Aligning Type V
Type IV
Known as: -Loading Fixtures, or
-Dollies, or
-Studs, or
Self-Aligning -Pull Stubs
Type VI 84
2 - Prepare the Loading Fixtures
• Follow the manufacturer’s instructions
• Failures at the dolly-adhesive interface may be avoided by
treating the dolly surface in accordance with ASTM Guide
D2651, Standard Guide for Preparation of Metal Surface for
Adhesive Bonding

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3 - Apply Adhesive
• Identify a suitable glue:
• Cyanoacrylates (super glues) cure quickly and are commonly
used on some coatings with low bond strengths
• 2-part epoxies when stronger bonds are required

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3 - Apply Adhesive
• Prepare and apply the adhesive according to the
manufacturer’s instructions
• Note: Adding about 1% of #5 glass beads to the adhesive helps
with test dolly alignment

• Apply adhesive over the entire surface area of the dolly

• Place dolly onto the surface
• Remove excess adhesive
from around the dolly with
a Q-Tip without moving
the dolly

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3 - Apply Adhesive
• While curing, a constant pressure should be maintained on
the dolly using:
• Magnetic or mechanical clamping systems
• Masking tape

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 4 - Score around the dolly

• Scoring is a method of cutting around the perimeter of the dolly

down to the substrate
• Should only be done for:
• coatings greater than
500 µm (20 mils) thick
• reinforced coatings
• elastomeric coatings

• Avoid twisting or torquing the test area

• A template made out of plywood with a hole is an effective method
to avoid cutting tool movement

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5 – Pull the Dolly
• Attach the apparatus and set the force indicator to zero

• Increase the load to the dolly in a smooth, continuous

manner

Not faster than 1 MPa/s (150 psi/s)

Not longer than 100 seconds

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6 – Record the Results
• General test description

• Temperature and Humidity

• Equipment selected

• Scoring if performed

• Date, time, operator

• Record the maximum pull force

• At failure, or
• The maximum force applied

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 6 – Record the Results
• Report the Type and Location of the Break
• Adhesion Break: A break between coating layers or
between the substrate and first coating layer
• Cohesion Break: A break within a single coating layer
• Glue Break: Coating adhesion and/or cohesion strength
exceeds bonding strength of the adhesive
• If multiple locations of break occur, estimate the % of each
• e.g., 75% cohesion within primer; 25% adhesion between primer
and intermediate coats

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Types of Breaks

1 2 3 4 5
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Summary
• Pull-off adhesion testing is an excellent method for
verification that the coating has created a
mechanical bond with the substrate

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THANK YOU