CHAPTER 1

Nuclear Physics

Basic Professional Training Course; Module I

Nuclear physics and reactor theory
 Nuclear Physics
Study of the protons and neutrons at the centre of an
atom and the interactions that hold them together in a
space.
Example: nuclear reactions include radioactive decay,
fission,, and fusion
Basic Professional Training Course; Module I
Nuclear physics and reactor theory
Elements and Atoms
• Elements are basic components of matter - element is a substance that cannot be
broken down into any other substance by ordinary chemical means and have the
same number or of protons and same atomic number
• 118 elements are currently known, 98 elements are naturally occurring
• Four of these were included on the list in 2016. These are Nihonium (113), Moscovium (115),
Tennessine (117), and Oganesson (118). 
• Elements have specific names and symbols, e.g.:
H – Hydrogen
He – Helium
Li – Lithium
O – Oxygen
U – Uranium
Cu - Copper
…
• Basic constituents of element are atoms:
- Atom is the smallest particle of an element, having its chemical properties
- Atoms of different elements have different chemical properties

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Atom

• Atom: the smallest particle of an element

• Atom is composed of:
• Nucleus, which is the central core of an atom
• has the proton which has positive electrical charge and the neutron that is neutral
• Negatively charged electrons, which form sort of cloud around the nucleus – the
electron envelope

nucleus
• Size of atom ~ 10 m
-10
10-10 m 10-14 m
• Diameter of atom : nucleus ~ 10000 : 1
• Mass of nucleus > 99,95% of atom mass
electrons
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Major Constituents of an Atom

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Atomic Number/Mass Number

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Composition of the nucleus

• Nucleus is composed of particles called nucleons:

PROTON (p) NEUTRON (n)
charge +e0 no charge
mass 1,0072766 u 1,0086654 u

• They are bound together with nuclear force (strongest force in nature)
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Isotopes

• Atoms of the same element can differ in weight:

• Equal number of protons (and electrons)
• Equal chemical properties
• Their nuclei have different masses
• The difference in masses originates from different number of neutrons

• Atoms of a given element with different number of neutrons are

called isotopes
• (isotopes are nuclides, belonging to the same element)

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Hydrogen isotopes

ordinary hydrogen heavy hydrogen super heavy hydrogen

(light hydrogen) deuterium tritium
1 p, 0 n, 1 e 1 p, 1 n, 1 e 1 p, 2 n, 1 e

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FORCES OF NATURE

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 RADIOACTIVITY/HALF-LIFE

process of spontaneous change in the

nuclei of the atom by releasing/emitting
particles and/or energy
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Radioactive decay

• Decay of unstable atomic nuclei

• The internal energy of nucleus is decreased
• The energy difference is carried away by particles and/or EM radiation
 (radioactive) radiation
• Radioactive decay is a spontaneous process
• The mode and the rate of decay cannot be influenced from the outside
• Often, an isotope of one element is converted to an isotope of
another element

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Types of radioactive decay

• the type of radioactive decay is determined by the type of radiation

emitted during disintegration
• most common types of decay are:
• alpha decay
• beta decay
• gamma decay

• the result of all types of radioactive decay is ionizing radiation:

• energetic particles or EM radiation that ionizes matter (removes electrons
from atoms)
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Alpha decay ( decay)

• Alpha decay is a consequence of the disintegration of a nucleus of another element

with the
4 emission of alpha particle; helium nucleus of 2 protons and two neutrons;
2 He

•  particle is 4He2 nucleus

• energies of  particles are several MeV

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Nuclear physics and reactor theory
Beta decay ( decay)

• beta decay is a consequence of disintegration of nucleus into a nucleus of another

element with the emission of beta particle, which is an electron

• subtypes of  decay: -, +, and electron capture (ε)

• nuclei with surplus of neutrons disintegrate with - decay

• nuclei with surplus of protons disintegrate with + decay or ε

• - particle is electron, + particle is positron

• beta decay produces also neutrino ν which carries some energy

• neutrino has practically no influence on matter or the environment
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- decay

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 decay
• occurs when a nucleus emits a gamma ray () and becomes a less
energetic form of the same nucleus
• nucleons in nucleus can occupy only specific energy levels
• gamma ray is a photon of high energy electromagnetic radiation

• energies of  rays: ~100 keV – MeV

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Isomers

• some excited nuclei are stable enough to exist in an excited state for a
definite time
• such nucleus is called isomer
or

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Nuclear changes

• In α and β decays, the structure of nuclei changes

• radioactive decay is a spontaneous change of nuclei
• In any change of structure of nuclei, the following is conserved:
• number of nucleons
• electric charge

• Examples:
• α decay:
• β decay:
• γ decay:

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General facts about radioactive decays

• Heavy nuclei decay with alpha decay

• Nuclei with surplus of neutrons decay with - decay

• Nuclei with surplus of protons decay with + decay or electron capture (ε)

• After  or  decay, the daughter nucleus is often in excited state which de-
excites by  decay

• Excited state of the resulting nucleus is usually so short-lived that  rays are
attributed to the decayed nucleus
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Radiation Characteristics

Neutrons do
not result from
radioactive
decay but from
nuclear
reactions

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Let’s try

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Let’s try
Write complete nuclear equations for the following processes:
a. Uranium-235 undergoes an alpha decay to produce Thorium-131.
 
 

b. Cobalt-60 is produced when a radioactive isotope undergoes beta decay.

 
 
 
 
 
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Half-life

()
• Half-life;t1/2 ; is the time in which the number of radioactive 1
nuclei decreases by half (1/2) 𝑁 =𝑁 𝑜 𝑛
2
• The number of radioactive nuclei is further halved with each
passing of half-life: 𝑇
• t = 0: n0 nuclei 𝑛=
• t = t1/2: ½ (n0) = n0/2 nuclei
𝑡
• t = 2 t1/2: ½ (n0/2) = n0/4 nuclei N = quantity of the substance remaining
• t = 3 t1/2: ½ (n0/4) = n0/8 nuclei No = initial/beginning amount of the substance
T = time elapsed
• t = m  t1/2:n0/2m nuclei t = half life of the substance

• The number of radioactive nuclei decreases exponentially with

time
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HALF - LIFE
The half-life of plutonium-239 is 24,300 years. If a nuclear bomb
released 8 kg of this isotope, how many years would pass before the
amount is reduced to 1 kg?

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Let’s try

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Review – half life
There are 5.0 grams of 131 left after 40.35 days. How many grams were
in the original sample if its half-life is 8.07 days?

What is the half-life of a radioactive isotope if a 500.0g sample decays to

62.5g in 24.3 hours?

A medical institution requests 1 g of bismuth-214, which has a half life

of 20 min. How many grams of bismuth-214 must be prepared if the
shipping time is 2 h?
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CARBON DATING
method for determining the age of an object
containing organic material by using the properties
of radioactive isotope of carbon.

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CARBON DATING

Professor Willard Libby

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CARBON DATING

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CARBON DATING

Limitations:
Cannot be used for samples older
than 60, 000

Machines used:
Accelerator Mass Spectrometer
Liquid Scintillation Counter
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CARBON DATING

Accelerator Mass Spectrometer

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 Who discovered radioactivity?

In 1896, Henri Becquerel

accidentally discovered radioactivity
 Who discovered radioactivity?
• Two years later Marie and
Pierre Curie discovered
two new elements,
polonium and radium,
both radioactive.
 Radioactive Elements
• Any element over atomic number 83 is radioactive.
• Radioactive materials have unstable nuclei (too few or too many
neutrons).
• When an unstable nucleus decays, it breaks apart emitting particles
and energy as it decays.
• Three types of nuclear radiation:
Alpha particles
Beta particles
Gamma radiation
electromagnetic wave
 Fission
• The process in which a large nucleus “splits” into two
with the emission of neutrons and the conversion of
mass into energy
• It requires collision of nucleus with a subatomic particle
 Fission
• Nuclear fission of heavy elements was discovered on 17
December 1938, by German chemist Otto Hahn and his
assistant Friedrich Wilhelm Strassmann in cooperation
with Austrian-Swedish physicist Lise Meitner.
What nuclei can split during nuclear fission?
• Only large nuclei like
Uranium or
plutonium can split
apart during nuclear
fission.
 Chain Reaction
• A series of fission reaction is called a chain reaction.
• Can only be slowed by using materials that will
absorb the neutrons.
• Chemical elements such as boron, cadmium, silver,
or indium are incorporated to absorb
many neutrons without themselves fissioning. 
 Chain Reaction
• An uncontrolled chain reaction releases a huge
amount of energy in a short time & requires a critical
mass of starting material to produce more reactions.

• Critical Mass is the (minimum) amount of material

needed (to sustain) for a chain reaction to happen
Manhattan
Engineering
Project
Nuclear Power
• Nuclear power plants use
fission to produce energy.
• Nuclear power plants are
used in many countries (USA
is the leader followed by
France).
• Ideal location for a nuclear
power plant?
Bataan Nuclear
Power Plant
Nuclear Meltdown
 Fusion
• In a nuclear fusion reaction, two small, light nuclei combine to
form one larger, heavier nucleus.
• Two hydrogen atoms combine under extreme heat and
pressure to form a helium atom.
 Fusion
• Why would we want to use the fusion reaction in a nuclear power plant?

Benefits for Mankind

• It represents a long-term, sustainable, economic and safe energy source for electricity
generation.

• Fuel is inexpensive and abundant in nature (hydrogen), while the amount of long-lived
radioactive waste and greenhouse gases produced through fusion are minimal.

• While research on nuclear fusion continues, many spin-offs relating to plasma physics
and fusion technology are already benefiting society. These include improvements in
materials research, such as ceramic, metals and coatings, and industrial processes such
as welding and waste removal.
 Radiation Damage
• Mutate hemoglobin
• Mutate cells, lose function
• Destroy immune system
• Burn skin, destroy bone