Risers

 Risers (or Feeders) are the reservoirs of liquid metal provided in

the mold to compensate for the volumetric shrinkage of the cast-
ing over the total solidification period

 Shrinkage in casting occurs in 3 stages

Liquid Solidification Solid shrinkage

shrinkage shrinkage

Considered for risering purpose Pattern maker’s allowance

 Liquid shrinkage is negligible, but solidification shrinkage is considerable

Solidification of cube casting – Development of shrinkage cavity
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Molten Liquid
Metal

Solid
Void

(a) cube completely filled with molten metal

(b) start of solidification
(c) void formation
(d) shrinkage cavity
Voids are likely to form in the castings unless additional
molten metal is fed into these places which are termed as hot
spots since they remain hot till the end.
Risers prevent shrinkage cavities by providing molten metal to the
casting as it solidifies, so that the cavity forms in the riser and not in the
casting.

Where risers are not required

Risers are not effective on materials that have a large freezing range, because
directional solidification is not possible.

Risers are also not needed for casting processes that utilize pressure to fill the
mold cavity.
 Solidification process Progressive solidification
Riser
Directional solidi-
Progressive solid-
fication
ification

Solid
Liquid

 Directional solidification aims at starting solidification at

remotest point of the casting from riser

 Since the cooling is achieved by the removal of heat from all

surfaces which are exposed to the atmosphere or sand,
cooling normally starts from the point which is thinnest or
is exposed over a larger surface area.
 Requirements…?

The casting must be designed to produce directional solidifi-

cation, which sweeps from the extremities of the mold cavity
toward the riser(s).

In this way, the riser can feed molten metal continuously to
the casting that is solidifying. 

One way of achieving this is by placing the riser near the

thickest and largest part of the casting, as that part of the
casting will cool and solidify last.

If this type of solidification is not possible, multiple risers that

feed various sections of the casting or chills may be necessary.
 Solution…!!!

For the riser to cool after the casting, the riser must cool
more slowly than the casting. 

Chvorinov’s states that the slowest cooling time is achieved

with the greatest volume and the least surface area; geometri-
cally speaking, this is a sphere.

So, ideally, a riser should be a sphere, but this isn't a very

practical shape to insert into a mold, so a cylinder is used in-
stead.

The height to diameter ratio of the cylinder varies depending

on the material, location of the riser, size of the flask, etc.
 Casting Yield

The efficiency, or yield, of a casting is defined as the

weight of the casting divided by the weight of the total
amount of metal poured.

Riser size, number, and placement should be carefully

planned to reduce waste while filling all the shrinkage in the
casting.
Risers of large diameters are preferred.

 But higher the riser volume, lower is the casting yield and it
is very uneconomical
1. The metal in the riser should solidify in the end
2. The riser volume should be sufficient for compensating
the shrinkage in the casting
 Types of risers
Risers are categorized based on three criteria:

Location
Is it open to the atmosphere or not,
How it is filled.

If the riser is located on the casting then it is known as

a top riser

If it is located next to the casting it is known as a side riser.

If the riser is open to the atmosphere it is known as

an open riser.

If the riser is completely contained in the mold it is known

as a blind riser.
If the riser receives material from the gating system and
fills after the mold cavity, it is known as a live riser or hot
riser.

If the riser fills with material that has already flowed
through the mold cavity it is known as a dead riser or cold
riser.

Live risers are usually smaller than dead risers.

 Riser Design

Various methodologies used are:

1.MODULUS METHOD (CHVORINOV’S FORMULA)

2.CAINE’S METHOD
Solidification of the casting occurs by losing heat from the
surfaces and amount of the heat is given by the volume of
the casting

Riser is also similar to the casting in its solidification behavior,

the riser characteristic can also be specified by the ratio of its
surface area to volume

Chvorinov has shown that the solidification time of a cast-

ing is proportional to the square of the ratio of volume to sur-
face area of the casting

The constant of proportionality called mould constant

depends on the pouring temperature, casting and mould
thermal characteristics.
 1.Chovrinov’s Formula (or) Modulus Method
2
V 
tf
k
A  triser = 1.25 tcasting
tf
so
lid
if
ica
tio
ntim
e
V=vo
lumeofca
stin
g
A=s
urf
acear
eaofcas
tin
g
k
= c
ons
tan
t,de
pen d
sonmold
mate
ria
l,m
eta
lpr
ope
rtie
san
dpo
rin
gte
mpe
ra
tu
re

V V
    
A
 
ris
er A
ca
stin
g

V V
I
n p
ra
ctis
e:   (
1.1
0to1
.1
5) 
A
ris
er A
ca
stin
g
 2. Caine’s Method
Relative freeing time (or) freezing ratio is defined as:
A
 
 V  casting
X=
A
 
 V  riser

In order to feed the casting, the riser should solidify last
and hence freezing ratio (X) should be greater than unity.

Sphere has the lowest surface to volume ratio and hence

should be used as a riser. But in a sphere the hottest being at
the centre, it is difficult to use for feeding the casting.

The next best is the cylindrical type which is most com-

monly used for their ease in moulding.
Based on the chvorinov’s rule, Caine developed a rela-
tionship emperically for the freezing ratio (X) as follows:

a
X= + c
Y-b

a - freezing characteristic constant

b - liquid-solid solidification contraction constant
c - relative freezing rate of riser and casting

A
  Volume of riser
 V  casting Y=
X= Volume of casting
A
 
 V  riser
 a b c
Steel 0.1 0.03 1.00
Al 0.1 0.06 1.08
Cast Iron 0.04 0.017 1.00
Grey CI 0.33 0.03 1.00
Al bronze 0.24 0.017 1.00

a - freezing characteristic constant

b - liquid-solid solidification contraction constant
c - relative freezing rate of riser and casting
Caine’s equation when plotted will be as below
The curved line shows the locus of the points that separates a sound casting
and casting with shrinkage defect

1.6

1.4

1.2

1.0
Y
0.8
Sound casting
0.6

0.4
Un Sound casting
0.2
0.0
0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9

X
 Solidification times for various shapes

Three metal pieces being cast have the same volume but different
shapes; one is a sphere, one a cube, and the other a cylinder with
its height equal to its diameter.Which piece will solidify the fastest
and which one the slowest.

Solidification time tf α (since volume is unity)

Cube V=a3 A=6a2

Cylinder V= πr2h A= 2 πr2 + 2 πrh

Sphere V= 4/3 (πr3 ) A=4 πr2

Hence cube shaped casting will solidify faster and the sphere shaped casting
will solidify the slowest.

Solidification times of Sphere:0.043C, cube:0.028C, cylinder:0.033C

 Exercise
1.Two castings of the same metal have the same surface area. One casting is in
the form of a sphere and the other is a cube. What is the ratio of the solidification
time for the sphere to that of the cube

2.Calculate the ratio of the solidification times of two steel cylindrical risers of sizes
30 cm in diameter by 60 cm in height and 60 cm in diameter by 30 cm in height
subjected to identical conditions of cooling

3. Two solid work pieces (i) a sphere with radius r (ii) a cylinder with its diameter
equals to its height, have to be sand cast. Both work pieces have the same volume.
Show that the cylindrical work piece will solidify faster than the spherical work piece.

4. Two castings, a cube and a slab of the same material solidify under identical con-
ditions. The volumes of the castings are equal , but the slab dimensions are in the
ratio of 1:2:4. Find the ratio of solidification time of the cube to that of slab.
3.

1. 6/π =1.9

2. 1.56

4. 1.36
Calculate the size of a cylindrical riser(height and diameter equal) necessary
to feed a steel slab casting 25 x 25 x 5 cm with side riser.
For steel a=0.1, b= 0.03, c= 1

a
X= + c
Y-b
 Risering Aids
Risering aids can be implemented to slow the cooling of
a riser or decrease its size.

 One is using an insulating sleeve and top around the

riser.

 Another is placing a heater around the riser.

In order to reduce premature solidification of sections

within the riser, in many manufacturing operations, the tops
of open risers may be covered with an insulating com-
pound,(such as a refractory ceramic), or an exothermic
mixture,(such as iron oxide combined with powdered alu-
minum). 
Refractory ceramic
Use of an insulating or exothermic mixture in the raiser reduces the piping
tendency and decreases the amount of metal required in the raiser.
Fluid Flow and Solidification Time

Bernoulli’s theorem

Mass continuity

Sprue design

Reynolds number

Chvorinov’s Rule
 Casting Simulation
Softwares

SolidCAST – Finite Solutions Inc.USA

Star Cast
AnyCast
CASE STUDIES
Two riser systems for the hinge plates

Choose the riser system

(Option A or Option B )  

which provides the best feed into the
heavy sections of the plate.
•In Option A, the riser system consists of two small risers for each
plate, positioned over the side walls of the hinge plate.

•This riser system design does not feed enough molten metal into

the heavier sections (the four corners) of the casting. It
risks solidification shrinkage porosity in the four corners.

Option A is not preferred riser system design

•In Option B, the riser system consists of four large risers for
each plate, positioned over the corners of the hinge plate.

•This riser system design provides molten metal feed directly into
the heavier sections (the four corners) of the casting. It will pre-
vent solidification shrinkage porosity in the four corners.

•Option B is preferred riser system design

Two feeders, only one
has piped.
 In every case, each
casting has two feed-
ers and only one has
piped.
Two feeders, one
casting.
This feeder piped.

This feeder piped.

Step Block Casting – No Gating or Feeding
Progressive Solidification

Last point to solidify

Effect of Contraction

Liquid metal drains from this

portion to feed the contraction
of the entire casting
 Directional Solidification

The progressive solidification of different parts of a casting

such that a flow path is always open to those portions of
the casting where solidification contraction is still occur-
ring.
Feeder
 This part solidi-
fies third
This part solidi-
fies second

This part solidi-

fies first

Liquid “Feed Metal” is able to flow The last point to so-

and compensate for contraction lidify is in the feeder
throughout the casting
 Directional Solidification!

All of the “Feed Metal” comes

from the feeder.
There is no shrinkage in the
casting.
What if we put the feeder at the other end?
Feeder attached to “narrow” end
 Now we have an isolated
“Hot Spot” in the heavy sec-
tion of the casting
The metal in this section froze early and
did not allow feed metal to be delivered
from the feeder to the heavy section of
the casting.
The Result? Non-Directional Solidifica-
tion!

Area of shrinkage in the cast-

ing
SOLIDCast uses the THERMAL MODULUS to
calculate the location and extent of feeding
zones within the casting.

This is superior to the traditional measure of

Volume:Surface Area Ratio, as it is able to
take into account heat saturation of mold and
core pockets as well as heat extraction by
chills and, if desired, temperature distribution
due to filling.
The SOLIDCast Cast Iron Feeder Design Pro-
gram assumes that side feeders are cylindri-
cal with a hemispherical bottom, while top
feeders are cylindrical in shape.

Rule: The tops of the feeders should be above

the highest point of the casting for gray and
ductile iron casting, by at least the minimum
section thickness.
Gating should be designed to freeze relatively
quickly after the liquid metal has filled the
mold cavity.

In general, this means that the gate attach-

ment to the casting should have a 5:1 ratio of
width to height to ensure relatively quick
freezing so that expansion pressure can be
contained.

Remember, Control of Expansion Pressure is

our ultimate goal in feeding cast iron.
 All of these calculations can be performed
quickly and easily in

As an example, consider the task of designing

a feeding system for the following ductile iron
casting.
This is the basic casting shape as imported
from a CAD system in SOLIDCast.
Ductile Iron is selected as
the Casting Material from
the SOLIDCast database.
The casting is meshed with
no feeders or gates, so that
a “thermal” simulation can
be run for calculation of the
Modulus of the casting.
Once the thermal simulation
is complete, the SOLIDCast
Riser Design Wizard is se-
lected…
… and the user instructs the
Wizard to calculate and dis-
play the Casting Modulus.
The Iso-Surface Plot is se-
lected…
… and from the Iso-Surface
Plot Menu, we can read that
the maximum Modulus of
this casting is about 1.191
cm. At this point, this is all
the information we need
from the Wizard, so we can
just press Cancel to avoid
making the plot at this time.
Another item of information
we’ll need is the weight of
the casting. This can be
easily obtained by selecting
Mesh… Weights from the
main menu. Here we can
see that the casting weighs
8.615 Kg.
Now we are ready to calculate the properties
of the iron, and the required feeder size.
From the main menu, we se-
lect Tools… Iron Property
Calculator.
 Here we enter the cast-
Here we enter the ing Modulus as previ-
Carbon, Silicon and ously calculated by the
Phosphorus content Wizard.
of the iron.

And here we enter an

estimate of the tem-
perature of the metal in
the mold.

Clicking the Calculate Iron Properties button causes the system to

display the Shrinkage Time (ST) in terms of % Solid, and the net
amount of Expansion (+) or Contraction (-) which occurs up to that
Shrinkage Time. This is the quality of the iron without considering
mold dilation.
Now that we have the properties of the iron
calculated, we can design a feeder for this
casting.
First, we enter the cast-
ing weight as previ-
ously calculated by the
system in the Mesh
menu.
Next, we select the ex-
pected amount of mold
dilation. This can be
anywhere from less
than 0.5% for a very
rigid mold to more than
2% for a loose green
sand mold. Here we’ve
selected 1% for a well-
made sand mold.
 The next item to select
is sleeve type. You can
select either a sand
feeder (no sleeve), an
insulating feeder,
exothermic or
exothermic minifeeder.
You can also select
whether the casting is
gated through the
feeder. The proportion
of liquid metal removed
from the feeder is au-
tomatically adjusted.
Next we select the ratio
of Height to Diameter
that we want to use for
the feeder design.
Finally, we have the op-
tion to select either a
Top or Side Feeder.
Here we have selected
a Side Feeder.
 Now, pressing the Calculate
button will display the required
feeder and neck size, as well
as the Modulus of the neck
and the feeder. Note that the
Neck Modulus is also referred
to as the Transfer Modulus
and can be used to indicate
how many feeding zones (and
now many required feeders)
there are for this casting.
 Notice that by selecting the
Short Neck option and repress-
ing the Calculate button, we
can calculate a neck size for a
feeder which is very close to
the casting (closer than the
minimum dimension of the
neck).
 Now by plotting the Transfer Modulus in an X-Ray
View (Iso-Surface Plot) we can see that the entire
casting is one feeding zone, so only one feeder is re-
quired for this casting.
Another image of the Transfer Modulus, using Cast-
Pic plotting, also shows one zone which means one
feeder is required for this casting.
 A more traditional Modulus calculation using
Volume/Surface Area Ratio would have indicated two
separate feeding areas, one in the central hub and
one around the outer rim as shown here. Why is
there a difference?
 Heat Saturation

This cross-sectional view through the casting and mold shows tempera-
ture. You can see that the mold material becomes saturated with heat
in the “pocket” areas between the inner hub and the outer rim, which
keeps the thinner sections hot. This effect would not be captured by
performing the old-fashioned Volume/Surface Area Modulus calcula-
tions, but is automatically taken into account when performing the
Thermal Modulus function within SOLIDCast, because thermal effects in
the mold are simulated.
 Now that we have the feeder and neck dimensioned, we also need to
dimension the sprue, runner and gate, as well as estimate a fill time.
The SOLIDCast Gating Wizard calculates an Optimal Fill Time of about
13 seconds for this casting (assuming a single casting).
And by describing the geometry of our proposed gat-
ing system…
The Wizard calculates for us a sprue diameter of about 15 mm.
And an inlet gate of about 6 mm X 29 mm, which should ensure
that the gate freezes quickly for control of expansion pressure.
 Now we can use all of the calculated dimen-
sions to create a simple system for gating and
feeding this casting, which would appear as
follows:
The complete model: Casting, Neck,
Feeder, Gate and Sprue
We use the results of the Cast Iron Calculation
Utility Program to adjust the shrinkage curve
parameters for the exact conditions of this
iron chemistry, temperature and modulus
value.
 Shrinkage Time of 63%, amount Add expansion of approximately
of shrinkage = -1.77% minus Mold 0.5% per 10% solidification.
Dilation of 1% for a total shrinkage
of -2.77%.

Set CFS Point ap-

prox. 5% to the right
of the ST Point
Using FLOWCast, we first perform a filling
simulation of the casting, pouring metal down
the sprue, through the gate and feeder and
into the casting cavity.
 Finally, we use SOLIDCast to perform a simu-
lation of the solidification of the casting and to
predict the soundness of the final part.
Progressive Solidification
Shrinkage Prediction
Shrinkage Prediction: X-Ray View
 The Final Result

A sound casting, correctly designed using the

SOLIDCast Feeder and Gating Design tools,
and verified using SOLIDCast and FLOWCast
simulation.

www.finitesolutions.com
 Solidification pure metals

 Solidification of alloys
 Solidification of Pure Metals

Cooling Curve (Temperature as a function of time) for the solidification of pure

metals.
Note that the freezing takes place at a constant temperature; dur-
ing freezing the latent heat of fusion is given off.
 Solidification of Pure Metals Contd…
Pure metal has a clearly defined melting (or freezing) point, it solidi-
fies at a constant temperature.

Pure Aluminium solidifies at 6600 C

Iron at 15370 C , and
Tungsten at 34100C

After the temperature of the molten metal drops to its freezing point,
its temperature remains constant while the latent heat of fusion is given
off.

Once solidification has taken place, cooling resumes.

The solidified metal, called the casting, is taken out of the mold and is
allowed to cool, to ambient temperature.
The grain structure of pure metal cast in a square mold is shown in fig.

At the mold walls, which are at ambient temperature, the metal cools
rapidly. Rapid cooling produces a solidified skin, or shell, of fine equiaxed
grains.

The grains grow in a direction opposite to that of the heat transfer out
through the mold. These grains that have favourable orientation will grow
and are called columnar grains.

Randomly oriented grains of small size

near the mold wall and large, columnar
grains oriented toward the center of the
casting
Solidification Mechanism of Pure Metal
 A pure metal solidifies at a constant temperature equal to it’s freez-
ing point
 The metal during solidification releases it’s latent heat of fusion into
surrounding mold
 After solidification, cooling continues-indicated by downward slope
of cooling curve
 Rate of solidification depends on heat transfer into mold, thermal
properties of metal
 Chilling action of the mold wall - a thin skin of solid metal is initially
formed at the interface – grains in the skin are fine, equiaxed and
randomly oriented
 Further grain formation and growth occurs in a direction away from
heat transfer – grains grow inwardly as ‘needles’
 Needles branch out – grain growth is called ‘Dendritic growth’
 Final grain orientation – coarse, columnar, aligned towards center
 Alloy Solidification

Solidification in alloys begins when the temperature drops below

the liquidus TL and is complete when it reaches the solidus, Ts .

Within this temperature range, the alloy is in a mushy or pasty

state with columnar dendrites.

The presence of liquid metal between the dendrite arms is ob-

served.

Dendrites have three-dimensional arms and branches (sec-

ondary arms) which eventually interlock, which can be seen in
fig.
(a) pure metals; (b) solid-solution alloys; and (c) structure obtained by using nu-
cleating agents
Segregation of alloying components (of different melting points) in centre
of casting as shown in figure, called ingot segregation.

Eutectic alloys constitute an exception to the

general process by which alloys solidify.

A eutectic alloy is a particular composition in

an alloy system for which the solidus and li-
quids are at the same temperature.

Hence, solidification occurs at a constant

temperature, rather than over a temperature
range as described previously.
Grain structure of alloy
Examples of eutectic alloys encountered in
casting include aluminum-silicon (11.6%Si)
and cast iron (4.3%C).

(A mixture of substances having a melting point lower than that of any of

its components). Eutectic alloys saves cost in melting.
 Basic Types of Cast Structures

Schematic illustration of three basic types of cast structures:

(a)columnar dendritic;
(b)equiaxed dendritic;
(c)equiaxed nondendritic.
The study of dendritic structures, although complex, is important be-
cause such structures contribute to detrimental factors such as composi-
tional variations, segregation, and microporosity.

The width of the mushy zone, where both liquid and solid phases are
present, is an important factor during solidification. This zone is described in
terms of a temperature difference, known as the freezing range.

Freezing range = TL - Ts

Pure metals have a freezing range that approaches zero and solidification
front moves as a plane front without forming a mushy zone.

For alloys, although it is not precise, a short freezing range generally in-
volves a temperature difference of less than 500 C, and a long freezing
range greater than 1100C
 Alloy Solidification

Dendrites
greek dendron, meaning “akin to” (like-
similar) and drys , meaning “tree”)

Schematic illustration of alloy solidification and temperature distribution in

the solidifying metal. Note the formation of dendrites in the mushy zone.
 Phase diagram for a copper-nickel alloy system and associated
cooling curve for 50%Ni-50%Cu composition during casting

Temperature
A
Liquid Solution Pouring temperature
Liquidus Liquid cooling
1455°C Solidification
begins
B Solidification
L+S complete
Temperature

C
Solidus Solid cooling
1083°C

Total Solidification
Solid Solution
time

Time
Ni 50% Cu

% Copper
Solidification mechanism of Alloys
 Most Alloys solidify over a temperature range rather than a single
temperature – range depends on alloy system and composition
 Freezing begins at temperature indicated by liquidus and com-
pleted when solidus is reached
 Start of freezing is similar to that of pure metal-fine grain formation
and then dendrites in case of alloys.(columnar growth in case of
metals)
 However owing to temperature spread between solidus and liq-
uidus the nature of dendritic growth is such that small islands of
liquid metal are trapped in metal matrix
 This zone is called ‘mushy zone’
 Gradually the liquid islands solidify as the temperature of casting
drops
 Grain structure in Alloy casting

(Dendritic )

(Larger grains)

(Smaller grains)

Cast grain struc-

ture

Chill zone—nucleation and growth

Columnar zone—dendritic growth
Central zone-- constitutional supercooling
 Ferrous castings generally have narrow mushy zones, where as
aluminium and magnesium alloys have wide mushy zones. Conse-
quently, these alloys are in a mushy state throughout most of the solidifi-
cation process.

Effects of cooling rates

Slow cooling rates or long local solidification times result in coarse dendritic
structures with large spacing between the dendrite arms.

Faster cooling rates or short local solidification times, the structure becomes
finer with smaller dendrite arm spacing

The structure developed and the resulting grain size influence the properties
of the casting.

As grain size decreases, the strength and ductility of the cast alloy in-
crease, microporosity in the casting decreases, and the tendency for the cast-
ing to crack(hot tearing) during solidification decreases.

Lack of uniformity in grain size and grain distribution results in casting with an-
isotropic properties.
 Solidification of Iron and Carbon Steels

(a) Solidification patterns for gray cast iron in a 180-mm (7-in.) square casting. Note that after
11 minutes of cooling, dendrites reach each other, but the casting is still mushy throughout.
It takes about two hours for this casting to solidify completely.
(b) Solidification of carbon steels in sand and chill (metal) molds. Note the difference in so-
lidification patterns as the carbon content increases.
 Special casting processes

Metal mold casting

1. Gravity or permanent mold casting(gravity die casting)
2. Die casting(pressure die casting)
i)Hot chamber process
ii)Cold chamber process
Non-metallic mold casting
1.Investment casting or lost wax casting
2.Centrifugal casting
3.Shell molding
4.Carbon dioxide molding
Schematic illustration of various casting processes
 Sodium silicate molding process (co2 molding)
Introduction: 

Co2 Casting is a kind of sand casting process. In this process the sand
molding mixture is hardened by blowing gas over the mold.

- Favoured by hobby metal casters - cost cutting can be done.

- Dimensionally accurate castings with fine surface finish.
- Not economical than green sand casting process. 

Process: 
The mold for Co2 casting is made of a mixture of sand and liquid
sodium silicate binder which is hardened by passing Co2 gas over the
mold.
The equipment
Co2 cylinder, regulator, hoses and hand held applicator gun or nozzle.
 Sodium Silicate Molding Process (Co2 molding) Contd..
The refractory material is coated with a sodium silicate binder.
After compaction Co2 is passed through the mold.

Co2 chemically reacts with Sodium silicate to cure or harden the

binder. After curing, the pattern is withdrawn from the mold.

Advantages
 Good dimensional tolerance because of the hard rigid mold
 Good surface finish of the cast products
 In home foundries, this is one of the simplest process that im-
proves the casting quality
Compared to other casting methods, cores and molds are strong
Moisture is completely eliminated from the molding sand
This process can be fully automated.
Limitations

• Poor shake out and collapsibility

• Porosity in castings

Applications 

Co2 casting process is ideal where speed and flexibility is the

prime requirement.
Molds and cores of a varied sizes and shapes can be molded by
this process.
 Shell Molding Process (Croning Process) Germany

3 to 8% phenolformaldehyde/ureaformaldehyde thermosetting resin

230 to 350o C

Lubricants like zinc/calcium stearate are used around the pattern

 Shell Molding Process (Croning Process)

Shell mold casting is a metal casting process similar to sand cast -

ing, in which molten metal is poured into an expendable mold.

In shell mold casting, the mold is a thin-walled shell created from
applying a sand-resin mixture around a pattern.

The pattern, a metal piece in the shape of the desired part, is

reused to form multiple shell molds.

A reusable pattern allows for higher production rates, while the

disposable molds enable complex geometries to be cast.

Shell mold casting requires the use of a metal pattern, oven,

sand-resin mixture, dump box, and molten metal.
 The shell mold casting process
1.Pattern creation - A two-piece metal pattern is created in the
shape of the desired part, typically from iron or steel.
Aluminum for low volume production or graphite for casting reac-
tive materials.
2.Mold creation - First, each pattern half is heated to 175-370°C and
coated with a lubricant (Zinc/calcium sterate) to facilitate removal.

Next, the heated pattern is clamped to a dump box, which contains a

mixture of sand and a resin binder.
( 3 to 8% phenolformaldehyde/ureaformaldehyde)

The dump box is inverted, allowing this sand-resin mixture to coat

the pattern. The heated pattern partially cures the mixture, which now
forms a shell around the pattern.
Each pattern half and surrounding shell is cured to completion in an
oven and then the shell is ejected from the pattern.
3.Mold assembly - The two shell halves are joined together and se-
curely clamped to form the complete shell mold. If any cores are
required, they are inserted prior to closing the mold.

The shell mold is then placed into a flask and supported by a back-
ing material.
4.Pouring - The mold is securely clamped together while the molten
metal is poured from a ladle into the gating system and fills the mold
cavity.
5.Cooling - After the mold has been filled, the molten metal is al-
lowed to cool and solidify into the shape of the final casting.

6.Casting removal - After the molten metal has cooled, the mold
can be broken and the casting removed. Trimming and cleaning
processes are required to remove any excess metal from the feed
system and any sand from the mold.
 Shell Molding
Casting process in which the mold is a thin shell of
sand held together by thermosetting resin binder

(1) a match‑plate or cope‑and‑drag metal pattern is heated and

placed over a box containing sand mixed with thermosetting
resin.

3 to 8% phenolformaldehyde/ureaformaldehyde thermosetting resin

 Shell Molding

(2) box is inverted so that sand and resin fall onto the hot pattern,
causing a layer of the mixture to partially cure on the surface to
form a hard shell;
(3) box is repositioned so that loose uncured particles drop away;
 Shell Molding
(4) sand shell is heated in oven for several minutes to complete cur-
ing;
(5) shell mold is stripped from the pattern;
 Shell Molding

(6) two halves of the shell mold are assembled, supported by sand or
metal shot in a box, and pouring is accomplished;

(7) the finished casting with sprue removed.

Advantages
Can form complex shapes and fine details
High production rate
Low labor cost
Low tooling cost
Little scrap generated
Good surface finish (Ra 1.25 to 3.75 microns)
High dimensional tolerance
Amenable towards automation
Castings weighing upto 450 kgs can be cast by this process
Thin sections (upto 0.25 mm) can be cast by this process
Disadvantages
• High equipment cost
• Patterns are expensive
• Castings weighing more than 450 kgs cannot be made
• Highly complicated shapes cannot be made
Applications
Cast iron, Aluminium and Copper alloys are cast by this process
Cylinder heads, connecting rods, lever arms, gear housings etc.

Shell mold casting allows the use of both ferrous and non-ferrous
metals, most commonly using cast iron, carbon steel, alloy steel,
stainless steel, aluminum alloys, and copper alloys.

Typical parts are small-to-medium in size and require high accu-

racy.
Semi auto shell molding machine
 Automobile , Jewellery items

http://thelibraryofmanufacturing.com
Investment Casting Process

Stucco is a mortar mixture used for siding

 Investment Casting Process
Investment casting is an industrial process based on and also called lost-
wax casting one of the oldest known metal-forming techniques. 

From 5,000 years ago, when beeswax formed the pattern, to today’s high-
technology waxes, refractory materials and specialist alloys, the castings
allow the production of components with accuracy, repeatability, versatility
and integrity in a variety of metals and high-performance alloys.

Lost-foam casting is a modern form of investment casting that eliminates

certain steps in the process.

In the 1940s, World War II increased the demand for precision net shape
manufacturing and specialized alloys that could not be shaped by traditional
methods, or that required too much machining.

Industry turned to investment casting. After the war, its use spread to many
commercial and industrial applications that used complex metal parts.
Slurry:Fine silica suspended in ethyl silicate solution
 Investment Casting Process cont..
Steps in the process

 Pattern making along with gating (using wax).

 Mould making (Mould material – refractory).
 Curing , stuccoing and drying of mould.
 Pattern removal and preheating.
 Pouring and solidification.
 Mould shakeout (breaking)
 Cleaning and inspection.

Refractory slurry is invested over wax pattern

 Investment Casting Process cont..
 Also called as lost-wax process.
 Pattern made of wax or plastic (polystyrene) by moulding.
 Pattern made by injecting molten wax or plastic into metal die
in the shape of pattern.
 Pattern dipped into slurry of refractory material (fine silica sus-
pended in ethyl silicate solution).
 Above process repeated to increase thickness.
 Number of patterns can be joined to make one mould.
 This increases production rate
Applications
 To produce intricate shapes of small size (parts wt. = 1 g to 35 kg.)
 Gears, cams, valves, ratchets (socket wrench which allows move-
ment in one direction)
 aircraft door frames, steel castings of up to 300 kg
and aluminium castings of up to 30 kg 

Advantages
 Casting of high pouring temperature alloys.
 Thin sections may be cast due to heated moulds.
 Near neat shape components.
 Superior microstructure compared to sand casting.
Turbine blades with complex
shapes or cooling systems
 Special casting processes

Centrifugal casting
 Centrifugal Casting
• Utilizes inertial forces caused by rotation to distribute the molten
metal into the mould cavities
• Three main types
- True centrifugal casting
- Semi centrifugal casting
- Centrifuging
Vertical Centrifugal Casting
Horizontal Centrifugal Casting
 Centrifugal-Casting Process

(a) Schematic illustration of the centrifugal-casting process. Pipes, cylinder liners, and
similarly shaped parts can be cast with this process. (b) Side view of the machine.

 Molten metal is poured into rotating mould.

 Axis of rotation
- Horizontal for long workpieces
- Vertical for short workpieces
 Moulds made of steel, iron or graphite coated with refractory lining.
 Mould outer surface is shaped, inner surface remains cylindrical.
Pipes, gun barrels, street lamp posts & other hollow axis-symmetric components
 Centrifugal-Casting Process cont…
Advantages
– No cores, no gates & runners, no slag and oxide inclusions. Casting
yield reaching almost 100%
- Mechanical properties are better compared to other , because the
inclusions such as slag and oxides get segregated towards the cen-
tre and can be easily removed by machining
- The pressure acting on the metal throughout the solidification,
causes the porosity to be eliminated giving rise to dense metal
- Proper directional solidification can be obtained starting from mould
surface to the centre, upto certain thickness.

Disadvantages:
1.Only certain shapes which are axisymmetric and having concentric
holes are suitable for true centrifugal casting
2.Equipment is expensive and suitable only for large quantity pro-
duction.
Semi-centrifugal Casting and Casting by Centrifuging

(a) Schematic illustration of the semi centrifugal casting process. Wheels with spokes can
be cast by this process.
(b) Schematic illustration of casting by centrifuging. The molds are placed at the periphery
of the machine, and the molten metal is forced into the molds by centrifugal force.
 Semi-centrifugal casting

1. Revolving table
2. Holding Fixture
3. Drag
4. Flask
5. Cope
6. Pouring basin
7. Centre core
8. Strainer core
9. Feeder reservoir
10. Casting
Semi-centrifugal Casting

 For more complicated components, But axisymmetric in nature.

Eg: wheels with spokes & pulleys

 Rotational speeds less than that for true centrifugal casting

 The molds(made of sand or metal) are rotated about the central vertical
axis and metal enters thru central pouring basin

 Central holes in casting obtained through cores

 For larger production rates, the moulds can be stacked one over the
other, all feeding from the same central pouring basin.

Density of metal more at outer sections than at center

Semi-centrifugal casting
Centrifuging (Centrifuge casting)

 To obtain higher metal pressures during solidification, when casting shapes

are not axisymmetrical.

 Suitable for small jobs of any shape

 A number of small jobs are joined together by means of radial runners with a
central sprue on a revolving table.

 The jobs are uniformly placed on the table around the periphery so that their
masses are properly balanced.

 Properties of casting vary by distance from axis of rotation.

 Process is similar to semi-centrifugal casting

 The mold cavities are located away from the center of rotation and by cen-
trifugal force the molten metal gets distributed.
Centrifuging
Permanent mold casting
 Gravity Die Casting

Most die castings are made from non-ferrous metals,

like zinc, copper, aluminium, magnesium, lead,  and tin based alloys.

Gravity die casting is considered to be a better surface finish for

better mechanical properties.

It occurs as a result of relatively faster cooling rates in die casting.

Used for larger castings with thicker sections (5mm) and higher melting point alloys.

The metal is melted away from the actual casting so the higher melting point al-
loys such as magnesium and aluminium can be employed.

The dies are generally made from close-grained cast iron.

Maximum casting temperature is 650 C. Maximum weight using this method

approx. 15Kgs.
Due to the simple equipment used; this process is suitable for low production
batches of 500 minimum. Alloy wheels for high performance cars are cast using
this method.
 Working Principle of Gravity Die Casting:

The mould is cleaned using wire brush or compressed air to remove

dust and other particles from it.

 It is preheated to a temperature of 200-2800C by gas or oil flame and

then the surface is sprayed with a lubricant. The lubricant helps to Con-
trol the temperature of the die thereby increasing its life and also assist
in easy removal of solidified casting.

The mould is closed tightly and the liquid metal of the desired composi-
tion is poured into the mould under gravity.

After the metal cools and solidifies, the mould is opened and the cast-
ing is removed. Gating and risering systems are separated from the cast
part.

The mould is sprayed with lubricant and closed for next casting. The
mould need not to be preheated since the heat in the previous cast is
sufficient to maintain the temperature.
Advantages of Gravity Die Casting:
Good surface finish and close dimensional tolerances can be
achieved.
Suitable for mass production.
Occupies less floor space.
Thin sections can be easily cast.
Eliminates skilled operators.

Disadvantages of Gravity Die Casting:

 Initial cost for manufacturing moulds (dies) is high.
 Not suitable for steel and high melting point metals/alloys.
 Un-economical for small productions
 Die-Casting cont..
Reasons for popularity of Die Casting
 Thin walled castings can be cast easily.
 Fast production rates (500 to 1000 shots per hour)
 Intricate castings can be produced in incredibly short time with
high, repetitive quality and dimensional accuracy.
 Very good surface quality
 screw threads, etc.
 Die castings can produce fine grained structure
 better mechanical properties.
Limitations
 Casting size is limited
 Equipment is costly
 large quantities need to be processed for economy.
 Commercial production is limited to non-ferrous alloys.
 Not an economical substitute for sand casting which require little
or no machining.
 Pressure Die casting- Hot & Cold

Die casting -Hot chamber machine Die casting-Cold chamber machine

Depending on the type of metal being cast, a hot- or cold-chamber machine is used.
 Pressure Die-Casting
 Use permanent metallic dies.
 Molten metal injected into the metal mold cavity at high pressure
(7 MPa to 350 MPa)
 Parts made thru this process are : hand tools, toys, business
machines -appliances etc.
 Two types of die-casting machines - based on how the molten
metal is injected into the cavity
- Hot chamber die casting ( HCDC) -7 to 35 MPa
- Cold chamber die casting (CCDC) -14 to 140 MPa
 Because of high pressures  narrow sections, complex shapes,
fine surface details
 Difference between two die castings are:
- The holding furnace for molten metal is integral with
HCDC.
 Hot-Chamber Die-Casting

Schematic illustration of the hot-chamber die-casting process.

 Hot-Chamber Die-Casting cont..
Cycle in Hot chamber casting:
 With die closed and plunger withdrawn molten metal flows into the
chamber
 Plunger forces metal in chamber to flow into die, maintaining pres-
sure during cooling and solidification
 Plunger is withdrawn, die is opened and solidified, part is ejected
 Metal melted in a container attached to the machine and a piston
is used inject the liquid metal under high pressure into the die
 Injection pressure – 7 to 35MPa
 Because of hardship involved in injection system as it is sub-
merged in molten metal – applied to low MP metals like Zn, Sn,
Pb, Mg
 Two dies
- Fixed (cover) die
- Movable (extraction) die
 Cold-Chamber Die-Casting

Schematic illustration of the cold-chamber die-casting process. These machines are large
compared to the size of the casting, because high forces are required to keep the two
halves of the dies closed under pressure.
 Cold-Chamber Die-Casting cont..
 Molten metal is poured into an unheated chamber (shot chamber)
from an external melting container and a piston is used to inject the
metal under high pressure in to the die cavity
 Injection pressures – 14 to 140 MPa
 Used for high MP alloys of Al, Mg and Cu
 CCDC is suitable for high melting alloys/metals (Aluminium, brass)
Cycle in Cold chamber casting:
 With die closed and ram withdrawn, molten metal is poured into the
chamber
 Ram forces metal to flow into the die, maintaining pressure during
cooling and solidification and
 Ram is withdrawn, die is opened and part is ejected
 Cold-Chamber Die-Casting cont..
Advantages
 High production rates
 Thin, intricate sections
 Good surface finish
 Long die life
 Close dimensional tolerances ( 1 mm)

Limitations
 Maximum size of casting
 Material type limited
 Expensive tooling
Properties and Applications of Die-Casting Alloys
 Types of Cavities in Die-Casting Die

Various types of cavities in a die-casting die. Source: Courtesy of American Die

Casting Institute.
 Melting Practices
Melting is an equally important parameter for obtaining a quality
castings.

A number of furnaces can be used for melting the metal, to be

used, to make a metal casting.

The choice of furnace depends on the type of metal to be

melted. Some of the furnaces used in metal casting are as follow-
ing: Iron ore to Pig iron in blast furnace using coal or
coke. Pig iron contains high carbon. Pig iron to Cast
•Crucible furnaces Iron in Cupola using coke.
•Cupola
•Induction furnace 1.Air and coke fuel furnaces-inside ceramic bricks
2.Electric resistance furnace-muffle furnace-ceramic
•Reverberatory furnace crucible is used
3.Electric Induction furnace- costly-ceramic crucible
of standard sizes are used-for small quantities
 Crucible Furnace:

 These furnaces melt the metal without direct contact with a

burning fuel mixture
 Fuel may be commercial gases or fuel oil or coke
 Melting of both ferrous and non-ferrous metals in small
quantities in small foundries
Coke fired crucible furnace

crucible

Pit furnace
•Primarily used for non-ferrous metals

•Furnace is of a cylindrical shape

•Also known as pit furnace

•Preparation :

1.Make a deep bed of coke in the furnace

2.Burn the coke till it attains the state of maximum combustion

3.Insert the crucible in the coke bed

4.Remove the crucible when the melt reaches to desired tem-

perature
Melting Furnace - Cupola
Lime stone
 Standard melting unit of Iron industry to get cast iron from pig
iron.
 Refractory lined vertical steel vessels for continuous operation
and for large amounts of molten metal. The lining is generally
thicker in the lower portion of the cupola as the temperature are
higher than in upper portion
 Charge comprises of alternate layers of metal (pit iron, foundry
returns, steel scrap, etc.), coke, and flux which is dropped from
top charging door.

•The blast is blown through the tuyeres

•These tuyeres are arranged in one or more row around the pe-
riphery of cupola
•Hot gases which ascends from the bottom (combustion zone) pre-
heats the iron in the preheating zone

•Cupolas are provided with a drop bottom door through which de-
bris, consisting of coke, slag etc. can be discharged at  the end of
the melt

•A slag hole is provided to remove the slag from the melt

•Through the tap hole, molten metal is poured into the ladle

•At the top conical cap called the spark arrest is provided to prevent
the spark emerging to outside
 Cupola Operation
Operation
 Bottom plates are opened and held in place by a bar or pipe.
 A sand lining is rammed over the plates.
 A tap hole is formed at this level in line with the tapping spout.
 A wood and (excelsior - wood product used in packaging) are
placed on the sand bottom and covered with several feet of coke.
 Excelsior is ignited and the coke bed eventually becomes hot.
 Charges are dumped through the charging door over the coke bed.
 At proper time air blowers are started.
 Air is forced from the wind box through tuyeres into the furnace and
provides the oxygen required for combustion.
 Limestone melts and forms flux, which protects the metal against
excessive oxidation.
 Lime also fuses and agglomerates the ash.
 Cupola Operation cont…
 Once melting starts, the metal collects at the bottom.
- Molten metal is usually tapped off at regular intervals. or
- Tap hole is left open with metal flowing constantly.
 The size of the tap hole and rate of melting should be optimized
to improve the efficiency.
 Slag is drained off from the slag hole located at the back of the
furnace.
 Once the melting is finished, the bottom door is opened to remove
the remaining slag, unburned coke or molten metal drops from
the furnace.
 Cupola cont…
Element
% of
S.No. Charge material Mn S P
charge C Si

1 Pig iron 40 3.4 1.8 0.8 0.08 0.5

2 Foundry return 50 3.2 1.5 0.6 0.08 0.5
3 Steel scrap 0.2 0.2 0.5 0.8 0.04 0.05

Advantages
 Cheapest method for converting cold scrap metal or pig iron
into usable molten iron/cast iron
Reverberatory Furnace
A furnace or kiln in which the material under treatment is heated indi-
rectly by means of a flame deflected downward from the roof.

Reverberatory furnaces are used in copper, tin, and nickel production, in

the production of certain concretes and cements, and in aluminum.

Reverberatory furnaces heat the metal to melting temperatures with di-

rect fired wall-mounted burners.

The primary mode of heat transfer is through radiation from the refrac-
tory brick walls to the metal, but convective heat transfer also provides
additional heating from the burner to the metal.

The advantages provided by reverberatory melters is the high volume

processing rate, and low operating and maintenance costs.

The disadvantages of the reverberatory melters are the high metal oxi-
dation rates, low efficiencies, and large floor space requirements.
Blast Furnace (Iron ore + lime stone + coal)

Schematic illustration of a blast furnace

 Induction Furnace
cover

Copper induction
coils

Molten metal
(arrows indicate mixing action) Refractory ma-
terial

 For small quantities of composition controlled melts, remelting

metal
 Metal placed in a crucible which is completely surrounded with
copper coil thru which high frequency alternating current is passed
 The induced current in the charge melts the metal
 Due to strong electromagnetic stirring – mixing is good
Induction furnace
 Induction furnace
The induction heating power supply sends alternating current through
the induction coil, which generates a magnetic field. 

An alternative electromagnetic field induces eddy currents in the metal

which converts the electric energy to heat without any physical contact
between the induction coil and the work piece.

The furnace contains a crucible surrounded by a water cooled copper

coil. The coil is called primary coil to which a high frequency current is
supplied. By induction secondary currents, called eddy currents are
produced in the crucible.

High temperature can be obtained by this method.

Advantages of Induction Furnace

•Induction heating is a clean form of heating

•High rate of melting or high melting efficiency
•Alloyed steels can be melted without any loss of alloying el-
ements
•Controllable and localized heating

Disadvantages of Induction Furnace

•High capital cost of the equipment
•High operating cost
 Casting Defects
1. Gas Defects
i. Blow holes & open blows
ii.Air inclusions
iii.Pin hole porosity
2. Shrinkage Cavities

3. Moulding material defects

i.cuts & washes
ii.metal penetration
iii.fusion
iv.run out
v.rat tails & buckles
vi.swell
vii.Drop
4. Pouring Metal Defects
i.Mis runs & cold shuts
ii.Slag inclusions

5. Metallurgical Defects
i.Hot tears
ii.Hot spots
1.Gas defects: By lower gas passing tendency of the mold

i)Blow holes(inside) & open blows(outside)–Because of

moisture left in the mould, core & lower venting and permeabil-
ity.
Remedy: Proper venting

ii)Air inclusions: Because of higher pouring temps. which in-

creases gas absorption
Remedy: Appropriate pouring temp., reduce turbulence,
avoid straight sprue

iii)Pin hole porosity: Because of hydrogen in molten metal,

showing the path of escape
2.Shrinkage cavities: Liquid shrinkage during solidifica-
tion of the casting
Remedy: Proper feeding of liquid/casting design
3.Mould material defects
Not of requisite Mould material & improper ramming

i)Cuts & washes: Erosion of molding sand by the flowing molten

metal(Not having enough strength of molding sand or molten
metal flowing at high velocity)

ii)Metal penetration: When metal enters the gaps between sand

grains
Reason: Too coarse sand or no mould wash

iii)Fusion: Clay in the sand is of lower refractoriness or high

pouring temp.

Remedy: Select appropriate type of bentonite and amount

iv)Runout: Molten metal leaks out of the mold, because of faulty

mold making or faulty moulding flask
v)Rat tails & buckles: Because of compression failure of the
skin of mold cavity & excessive heat in the molten metal.

Sand expands because of heat; If the wall gives away, casting

surface may have this as a small line.
Buckles are rat tails which are severe
Remedy: Facing should have enough carbonaceous material to
provide necessary cushioning effect.
Proper choice of facing sand ingredients and pouring temp

vi)Swell: Mould may move back due to the influence of metallo-

static forces, mould wall move back causing a swell in the di-
mensions of the casting.
Remedy: Proper ramming of the mould

vii)Drop: Droping of loose moulding sand normally from the cope

surface into mould
Remedy: Proper ramming
4. Pouring metal defects: Because of lower fluidity or too
small section thickness

i)Mis runs: when the metal is unable to fill the mold cavity –
leaves unfilled cavities

ii)Cold-shut: When two metal streams while meeting in mould

cavity, do not fuse together causing discontinuity or weak spot
in the casting.

Remedy: Increase the fluidity by changing the composition of

molten metal or raise pouring temp or proper casting design

iii)Slag inclusions: Flux added during melting. The slag

should be removed from ladle otherwise slag will weaken the
casting
Remedy: Using slag trapping methods
5.Metallurgical Defects
i)Hot tears:Metals has low strength at higher temps. Any un-
wanted cooling, stress may cause the rupture of the casting

Reason: Poor casting design

ii)Hot spots: Hot spots – thick sections cool slower than other
sections causing abnormal shrinkage.

Remedy: Proper metallurgical control & chilling practices

REMEDIES OF SOME DEFECTS ARE ALSO THE CAUSES OF OTHERS

MINIMISE THE MOST UNDESIRABLE CASTING DEFECTS

This casting shows a very common defect, flash.
This is where the mold somehow seperated
enough to allow metal between the halves, along
the parting line
Gas porosity or blow holes Porosity
Dendritic shrinkage
Sponge shrinkage

inclusions
Cold shut

porosity

Blow holes
Mismatch
 CASTING DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
• Design guidelines help in avoiding the casting defects, improving
productivity and cost savings
1) Corners, angles and section thickness:
Sharp corners, angle, and fillets should be avoided – act as
stress raisers – leads to cracking and tearing of metal during so-
lidification
Poor design

Good design
Section changes must be smoothly blended into each other

The location of the largest circle that can be inscribed in a particular region is crit-
ical with regards to shrinkage cavity
Cavities at hot spots can be eliminated by providing cores

2) Flat areas: should be avoided as they warp during cooling – break

up the areas with ribs and serrations
3) Parting line: it is desirable for the parting plane to be along a flat
plane rather than contoured – parting line should be at corners or
edges of castings – flash will not be visible
Irregular parting line
Original design

Straight parting line

Improved design
4) Draft: to facilitate easy removal of pattern from the mold – vary from 0.5° to 2°
5) Use of cores: minor changes in part design can reduce the use of cores

6) Shrinkage allowance: to account for contraction of metal at various stages of

solidification and cooling
7) Dimensional tolerances and surface finishes: significant differences in the
dimensional accuracies and finishes that can be achieved in castings - usual
values are ±0.8mm for small castings
8) Machining allowances: to account for some additional finishing operations –
included in pattern dimensions - depends on type of casting – usual values
2mm to 5mm for small castings
 Design Rules for Casting

Suggested design modifications to avoid defects in castings

 Elimination of Hot Spots

Examples of designs showing the importance of maintaining uniform cross-

sections in castings to avoid hot spots and shrinkage cavities.
Examples of Good and Poor Designs

Examples of undesirable (poor) and desirable (good) casting designs.

Source: Courtesy of American Die Casting Institute.
Assignment-I

1.Name the pattern allowances. Write brief note on each of them.

2. What are different patterns materials and types of patterns

used in foundry.

3. Explain the ideal profiles of sprue and riser. Explain how they
are actually practiced.

4. Why is it necessary to use unpressurised gating system for the

non-ferrous metals. How are the ingate position and size deter-
mined?

5. Two solid work pieces (i) a sphere with radius r (ii) a cylinder
with its diameter equals to its height, have to be sand cast. Both
work pieces have the same volume. Show that the cylindrical work
piece will solidify faster than the spherical work piece.
6. Explain various casting defects

7. Compare precision investment casting and

shell moulding from the standpoint of process,
product and applications.

8. Compare cold chamber die casting and hot

chamber die casting

9. Explain the working of cupola

10. Explain solidification in metals and alloys.

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