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DM U2 Algebraic Structures

This document discusses algebraic structures such as semi groups, monoids, and groups. It provides examples of algebraic systems including the natural numbers, integers, and real numbers. It defines key properties such as closure, associativity, identity, and inverse. It also introduces concepts like sub semi groups, subgroups, homomorphisms, and isomorphisms. The document contains examples demonstrating that sets can form monoids and groups under different binary operations.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
38 views58 pages

DM U2 Algebraic Structures

This document discusses algebraic structures such as semi groups, monoids, and groups. It provides examples of algebraic systems including the natural numbers, integers, and real numbers. It defines key properties such as closure, associativity, identity, and inverse. It also introduces concepts like sub semi groups, subgroups, homomorphisms, and isomorphisms. The document contains examples demonstrating that sets can form monoids and groups under different binary operations.

Uploaded by

Parinita Marella
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Unit-II

Algebraic Structures
 Algebraic systems Examples and general
properties
 Semi groups Click to add text
 Monoids
 Groups
 Sub groups
 Homomorphism
 Isomorphism
Algebraic systems

 N = {1,2,3,4,….. } = Set of all natural numbers.


Z = { 0,  1,  2,  3,  4 , ….. } = Set of all integers.
Q = Set of all rational numbers.
R = Set of all real numbers.
 Binary Operation: The binary operator *,+, or other oeprators is said
to be a binary operation (closed operation) on a non empty set A, if
a * b  A for all a, b  A (Closure property).
Ex: The set N is closed with respect to addition and multiplication
but not w.r.t subtraction and division.
 Algebraic System: A set ‘A’ with one or more binary(closed)
operations defined on it is called an algebraic system.
Ex: (N, + ), (Z, +, – ), (R, +, . , – ) are algebraic systems.
Properties
 Commutative: Let * be a binary operation on a set A.
The operation * is said to be commutative in A if
a * b= b * a for all a, b in A
 Associativity: Let * be a binary operation on a set A.
The operation * is said to be associative in A if
(a * b) * c = a *( b * c) for all a, b, c in A
 Identity: For an algebraic system (A, *), an element ‘e’ in A is said to be an
identity element of A if
a * e = e * a = a for all a  A.
eg: a+0=0+a=a
a*1=1*a=a
 Note: For an algebraic system (A, *), the identity element, if exists, is unique.
 Inverse: Let (A, *) be an algebraic system with identity ‘e’. Let a be an
element in A. An element b is said to be inverse of A if
a*b=b*a=e
eg: a+(-a) =o
 Closure: If the result of the operation is always an element in the given set
 Distributive: a*(b+c)= (a*b)+(a*c)
Semi group
 Semi Group: An algebraic system (A, *) is said to be a semi group if
1. * is closed/closure operation on A.
2. * is an associative operation, for all a, b, c in A.
Ex. (N, +) is a semi group.
Ex. (N, .) is a semi group.
Ex. (N, – ) is not a semi group.

 Monoid: An algebraic system (A, *) is said to be a monoid if the


following conditions are satisfied.
1) * is a closed operation in A.
2) * is an associative operation in A.
3) There is an identity in A.
Note: Monoid holds closure, associative, Identity.
Monoid
 Ex. Show that the set ‘N’ is a monoid with respect to
multiplication.
 Solution: Here, N = {1,2,3,4,……}
1. Closure property : We know that product of two natural numbers is
again a natural number.
i.e., a.b = b.a for all a,b  N
 Multiplication is a closed operation.
2. Associativity : Multiplication of natural numbers is associative.
i.e., (a.b).c = a.(b.c) for all a,b,c  N
3. Identity : We have, 1  N such that
a.1 = 1.a = a for all a  N.
 Identity element exists, and 1 is the identity element.
Hence, N is a monoid with respect to multiplication.
Subsemigroup & submonoid
Subsemigroup : Let (S, * ) be a semigroup and let T be a
subset of S. If T is closed under operation * , then (T, * ) is
called a subsemigroup of (S, * ).
 Ex: (N, .) is semigroup and T is set of multiples of positive
integer m then (T,.) is a sub semigroup.
 
Submonoid : Let (S, * ) be a monoid with identity e, and let T
be a non- empty subset of S. If T is closed under the
operation * and e  T, then (T, * ) is called a submonoid of
(S, * ).
Group
 Group: An algebraic system (G, *) is said to be a group if
the following conditions are satisfied.
1) * is a closed operation.
2) * is an associative operation.
3) There is an identity in G.
4) Every element in G has inverse in G.

  Abelian group (Commutative group): A group (G, *) is


said to be abelian (or commutative) if
a * b = b * a a, b  G.
Algebraic systems

Abelian groups
Groups
Monoids
Semi groups
Algebraic systems
Theorem
 In a Group (G, * ) the following properties hold good
1. Identity element is unique.
2. Inverse of an element is unique.
3. Cancellation laws hold good
a * b = a * c  b = c (left cancellation law)
a * c = b * c  a = b (Right cancellation law)
4. (a * b) -1 = b-1 * a-1
 In a group, the identity element is its own inverse.

 Order of a group : The number of elements in a group is called


order of the group.

 Finite group: If the order of a group G is finite, then G is called a


finite group.
Ex. Show that, the set of all integers is a group with
respect to addition.

 Solution: Let Z = set of all integers.


Let a, b, c are any three elements of Z.
1. Closure property : We know that, Sum of two integers is again an
integer.
i.e., a + b  Z for all a,b  Z
2. Associativity: We know that addition of integers is associative.
i.e., (a+b)+c = a+(b+c) for all a,b,c  Z.
3. Identity : We have 0  Z and a + 0 = a for all a  Z .
 Identity element exists, and ‘0’ is the identity element.
4. Inverse: To each a  Z , we have – a  Z such that
a+(–a )=0
Each element in Z has an inverse.
Contd.,

 5. Commutativity: We know that addition of integers is commutative.


i.e., a + b = b +a for all a,b  Z.
Hence, ( Z , + ) is an abelian group.
Ex. Show that  set of all non zero real numbers is a group with respect to
multiplication .

 Solution: Let R* = set of all non zero real numbers.


Let a, b, c are any three elements of R* .
1. Closure property : We know that, product of two nonzero real
numbers is again a nonzero real number .
i.e., a . b  R* for all a,b  R* .
2. Associativity: We know that multiplication of real numbers is
associative.
i.e., (a.b).c = a.(b.c) for all a,b,c  R* .
3. Identity : We have 1  R* and a .1 = a for all a  R* .
 Identity element exists, and ‘1’ is the identity element.
4. Inverse: To each a  R* , we have 1/a  R* such that
a .(1/a) = 1 i.e., Each element in R* has an inverse.
Contd.,
 5.Commutativity: We know that multiplication of real numbers is
commutative.
i.e., a . b = b . a for all a,b  R*.
Hence, ( R* , . ) is an abelian group.

 Ex: Show that set of all real numbers ‘R’ is not a group with respect
to multiplication.
 Solution: We have 0  R .
The multiplicative inverse of 0 does not exist.
Hence. R is not a group.
Example
 Ex. Let (Z, *) be an algebraic structure, where Z is the set of integers
and the operation * is defined by n * m = maximum of (n, m).
Show that (Z, *) is a semi group.
Is (Z, *) a monoid ?. Justify your answer.
 Solution: Let a , b and c are any three integers.
Closure property: Now, a * b = maximum of (a, b)  Z for all a,b  Z

Associativity : (a * b) * c = maximum of {a,b,c} = a * (b * c)


 (Z, *) is a semi group.

Identity : There is no integer x such that


a * x = maximum of (a, x) = a for all a  Z
 Identity element does not exist. Hence, (Z, *) is not a monoid.
Example

 Ex. Show that the set of all strings ‘S’ is a monoid under the
operation ‘concatenation of strings’.
Is S a group w.r.t the above operation? Justify your answer.
 Solution: Let us denote the operation
‘concatenation of strings’ by + .
Let s1, s2, s3 are three arbitrary strings in S.
Closure property: Concatenation of two strings is again a string.
i.e., s1+s2  S

 Associativity: Concatenation of strings is associative.


(s1+ s2 ) + s3 = s1+ (s2 + s3 )
Contd.,

 Identity: We have null string ,   S such that s1 +  = S.


  S is a monoid.
 Note: S is not a group, because the inverse of a non empty string
does not exist under concatenation of strings.
Example

 Ex. Let S be a finite set, and let F(S) be the collection of all functions
f: S  S under the operation of composition of functions, then
show that F(S) is a monoid.
Is S a group w.r.t the above operation? Justify your answer.
 Solution:
Let f1, f2, f3 are three arbitrary functions on S.
Closure property: Composition of two functions on S is again a function
on S.
i.e., f1o f2  F(S)
 Associativity: Composition of functions is associative.
i.e., (f1 o f2 ) o f3 = f1 o (f2 o f3 )
Contd.,

 Identity: We have identity function I : SS


such that f1 o I = f1.
 F(S) is a monoid.

 Note: F(S) is not a group, because the inverse of a non bijective


function on S does not exist.
Ex. If M is set of all non singular matrices of order ‘n x n’.
then show that M is a group w.r.t. matrix multiplication.
Is (M, *) an abelian group?. Justify your answer.

 Solution: Let A,B,C  M.


1.Closure property : Product of two non singular matrices is again a non
singular matrix, because
AB = A . B  0 ( Since, A and B are nonsingular)
i.e., AB  M for all A,B  M .
2. Associativity: Marix multiplication is associative.
i.e., (AB)C = A(BC) for all A,B,C  M .
3. Identity : We have In  M and A In = A for all A  M .
 Identity element exists, and ‘In’ is the identity element.
4. Inverse: To each A  M, we have A-1  M such that
A A-1 = In i.e., Each element in M has an inverse.
Contd.,

  M is a group w.r.t. matrix multiplication.


We know that, matrix multiplication is not commutative.
Hence, M is not an abelian group.
Ex. Show that the set of all positive rational numbers forms an abelian
group under the composition * defined by
a * b = (ab)/2 .

 Solution: Let A = set of all positive rational numbers.


Let a,b,c be any three elements of A.
1. Closure property: We know that, Product of two positive rational
numbers is again a rational number.
i.e., a *b  A for all a,b  A .
2. Associativity: (a*b)*c = (ab/2) * c = (abc) / 4
a*(b*c) = a * (bc/2) = (abc) / 4
3. Identity : Let e be the identity element.
We have a*e = (a e)/2 …(1) , By the definition of *
again, a*e = a …..(2) , Since e is the identity.
From (1)and (2), (a e)/2 = a  e = 2 and 2  A .
 Identity element exists, and ‘2’ is the identity element in A.
Contd.,

 4. Inverse: Let a  A
let us suppose b is inverse of a.
Now, a * b = (a b)/2 ….(1) (By definition of inverse.)
Again, a * b = e = 2 …..(2) (By definition of inverse)
From (1) and (2), it follows that
(a b)/2 = 2
 b = (4 / a)  A
 (A ,*) is a group.
 Commutativity: a * b = (ab/2) = (ba/2) = b * a
 Hence, (A,*) is an abelian group.
Theorem

Ex. In a group (G, *) , Prove that the identity element is


unique.
 Proof :

a) Let e1 and e2 are two identity elements in G.


Now, e1 * e2 = e1 …(1) (since e2 is the identity)
Again, e1 * e2 = e2 …(2) (since e1 is the identity)
From (1) and (2), we have e 1 = e2
 Identity element in a group is unique.
Theorem

Ex. In a group (G, *) , Prove that the inverse of any element is unique.
 Proof:
 Let a ,b,c G and e is the identity in G.
 Let us suppose, Both b and c are inverse elements of a .
 Now, a * b = e …(1) (Since, b is inverse of a )
 Again, a * c = e …(2) (Since, c is also inverse of a )
 From (1) and (2), we have
 a*b=a*c
  b = c (By left cancellation law)
 In a group, the inverse of any element is unique.
Theorem

Ex. In a group (G, *) , Prove that


(a * b)-1 = b-1 * a-1 for all a,b G.
 Proof :
 Consider,
 (a * b) * ( b-1 * a-1)
 = (a * ( b * b-1 ) * a-1) (By associative property).
 = (a * e * a-1) ( By inverse property)
 = ( a * a-1) ( Since, e is identity)
 = e ( By inverse property)
 Similarly, we can show that
 (b-1 * a-1) * (a * b) = e
 Hence, (a * b)-1 = b-1 * a-1 .
Ex.    If (G, *) is a group and a  G such that a * a = a ,
then show that a = e , where e is identity element in G.

 Proof: Given that, a * a = a


  a * a = a * e ( Since, e is identity in G)
  a = e ( By left cancellation law)
 Hence, the result follows.
Ex.   If every element of a group is its own inverse, then show that
the group must be abelian .

 Proof: Let (G, *) be a group.


 Let a and b are any two elements of G.
 Consider the identity,
 (a * b)-1 = b-1 * a-1
  (a * b ) = b * a ( Since each element of G is its own
 inverse)
 Hence, G is abelian.
Note: a2 = a * a
a3 = a * a * a etc.

 Ex. In a group (G, *), if (a * b)2 = a2 * b2 a,b  G


then show that G is abelian group.
 Proof: Given that (a * b)2 = a2 * b2
  (a * b) * (a * b) = (a * a )* (b * b)
  a *( b * a )* b = a * (a * b) * b ( By associative law)
  ( b * a )* b = (a * b) * b ( By left cancellation law)
  ( b * a ) = (a * b) ( By right cancellation law)
 Hence, G is abelian group.
Finite groups

Ex. Show that G = {1, -1} is an abelian group under multiplication.


 Solution: The composition table of G is
 . 1 –1
 1 1 –1
 –1 –1 1
1. Closure property: Since all the entries of the composition table are the
elements of the given set, the set G is closed under multiplication.
2. Associativity: The elements of G are real numbers, and we know that
multiplication of real numbers is associative.
3. Identity : Here, 1 is the identity element and 1 G.
4. Inverse: From the composition table, we see that the inverse elements of
1 and – 1 are 1 and – 1 respectively.
Contd.,

Hence, G is a group w.r.t multiplication.


5. Commutativity: The corresponding rows and columns of the table are
identical. Therefore the binary operation . is commutative.
Hence, G is an abelian group w.r.t. multiplication..
Ex. Show that G = {1, , 2} is an abelian group under multiplication.
Where 1, , 2 are cube roots of unity.

 Solution: The composition table of G is


 . 1  2
 1 1  2
   2 1
 2 2 1 

1. Closure property: Since all the entries of the composition table are the
elements of the given set, the set G is closed under multiplication.
2. Associativity: The elements of G are complex numbers, and we know that
multiplication of complex numbers is associative.
3. Identity : Here, 1 is the identity element and 1 G.
4. Inverse: From the composition table, we see that the inverse elements of
1 , 2 are 1, 2,  respectively.
Contd.,

 Hence, G is a group w.r.t multiplication.


 5. Commutativity: The corresponding rows and columns of the table
are identical. Therefore the binary operation . is commutative.
 Hence, G is an abelian group w.r.t. multiplication.
Ex. Show that G = {1, –1, i, –i } is an abelian group under multiplication.

 Solution: The composition table of G is


 . 1 –1 i -i
 1 1 -1 i - i
 -1 -1 1 -i i
 i i -i -1 1
 -i -i i 1 -1
1. Closure property: Since all the entries of the composition table are the
elements of the given set, the set G is closed under multiplication.
2. Associativity: The elements of G are complex numbers, and we know
that multiplication of complex numbers is associative.
3. Identity : Here, 1 is the identity element and 1 G.
Contd.,

 4. Inverse: From the composition table, we see that the inverse


elements of
1 -1, i, -i are 1, -1, -i, i respectively.
 5. Commutativity: The corresponding rows and columns of the table
are identical. Therefore the binary operation . is commutative.
Hence, (G, .) is an abelian group.
Modulo systems.

 Addition modulo m ( +m )
 let m is a positive integer. For any two positive integers a and b
 a +m b = a + b if a + b < m
 a +m b = r if a + b  m where r is the remainder obtained
 by dividing (a+b) with m.
 Multiplication modulo p ( p )
 let p is a positive integer. For any two positive integers a and b
 a p b = a b if a b < p
 a p b = r if a b  p where r is the remainder obtained
 by dividing (ab) with p.
 Ex. 3 5 4 =2 , 5 5 4 =0 , 2 5 2 = 4
Ex.The set G = {0,1,2,3,4,5} is a group with respect to addition modulo 6.

 Solution: The composition table of G is


 +6 0 1 2 3 4 5
 0 0 1 2 3 4 5
 1 1 2 3 4 5 0
 2 2 3 4 5 0 1
 3 3 4 5 0 1 2
 4 4 5 0 1 2 3
 5 5 0 1 2 3 4

 1. Closure property: Since all the entries of the composition table


are the elements of the given set, the set G is closed under +6 .
Contd.,

 2. Associativity: The binary operation +6 is associative in G.


for ex. (2 +6 3) +6 4 = 5 +6 4 = 3 and
2 +6 ( 3 +6 4 ) = 2 +6 1 = 3
 3. Identity : Here, The first row of the table coincides with the top
row. The element heading that row , i.e., 0 is the identity element.
 4. . Inverse: From the composition table, we see that the inverse
elements of 0, 1, 2, 3, 4. 5 are 0, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 respectively .
 5. Commutativity: The corresponding rows and columns of the table
are identical. Therefore the binary operation +6 is commutative.
 Hence, (G, +6 ) is an abelian group.
Ex.The set G = {1,2,3,4,5,6} is a group with respect to multiplication
modulo 7.

 Solution: The composition table of G is


 7 1 2 3 4 5 6
 1 1 2 3 4 5 6
 2 2 4 6 1 3 5
 3 3 6 2 5 1 4
 4 4 1 5 2 6 3
 5 5 3 1 6 4 2
 6 6 5 4 3 2 1
 1. Closure property: Since all the entries of the composition table
are the elements of the given set, the set G is closed under 7 .
Contd.,

 2. Associativity: The binary operation 7 is associative in G.


for ex. (2 7 3) 7 4 = 6 7 4 = 3 and
2 7 ( 3 7 4 ) = 2 7 5 = 3
 3. Identity : Here, The first row of the table coincides with the top
row. The element heading that row , i.e., 1 is the identity element.
 4. . Inverse: From the composition table, we see that the inverse
elements of 1, 2, 3, 4. 5 ,6 are 1, 4, 5, 2, 5, 6 respectively.
 5. Commutativity: The corresponding rows and columns of the table
are identical. Therefore the binary operation 7 is commutative.
 Hence, (G, 7 ) is an abelian group.
More on finite groups

 In a group with 2 elements, each element is its own inverse


 In a group of even order there will be at least one element (other
than identity element) which is its own inverse
 The set G = {0,1,2,3,4,…..m-1} is a group with respect to addition
modulo m.
 The set G = {1,2,3,4,….p-1} is a group with respect to multiplication
modulo p, where p is a prime number.
 Order of an element of a group:
 Let (G, *) be a group. Let ‘a’ be an element of G. The smallest
integer n such that an = e is called order of ‘a’. If no such number
exists then the order is infinite.
Examples

 Ex. G = {1, -1, i, -i } is a group w.r.t multiplication.The order –i is


a) 2 b) 3 c) 4 d) 1
  Ex. Which of the following is not true.
 a)  The order of every element of a finite group is finite and is a
divisor of the order of the group.
b) The order of an element of a group is same as that of its inverse.
 c) In the additive group of integers the order of every element except
 0 is infinite
 d) In the infinite multiplicative group of nonzero rational numbers
the
 order of every element except 1 is infinite.
 Ans. d
Sub groups

 Def. A non empty sub set H of a group (G, *) is a sub group of G,


 if (H, *) is a group.
Note: For any group {G, *}, {e, * } and (G, * ) are trivial sub groups.
 Ex. G = {1, -1, i, -i } is a group w.r.t multiplication.
H1 = { 1, -1 } is a subgroup of G .
H2 = { 1 } is a trivial subgroup of G.
 Ex. ( Z , + ) and (Q , + ) are sub groups of the group (R +).
 Theorem: A non empty sub set H of a group (G, *) is a sub group of G
iff
 i)            a * b  H  a, b  H
 ii)           a-1  H aH
Theorem

 Theorem: A necessary and sufficient condition for a non empty


subset H of a group (G, *) to be a sub group is that
a  H, b  H  a * b-1  H.
 Proof: Case1: Let (G, *) be a group and H is a subgroup of G
Let a,b  H  b-1  H ( since H is is a group)
 a * b-1  H. ( By closure property in H)
 Case2: Let H be a non empty set of a group (G, *).
Let a * b-1  H  a, b  H
 Now, a * a-1  H ( Taking b = a )
 e  H i.e., identity exists in H.
 Now, e  H, a  H  e * a-1  H
 a-1  H  
Contd.,

  Each element of H has inverse in H.


Further, a  H, b  H  a  H, b-1  H
 a * (b-1)-1  H.
 a * b  H.
 H is closed w.r.t * .
 Finally, Let a,b,c  H
 a,b,c  G ( since H  G )
 (a * b) * c = a * (b * c)
 * is associative in H
 Hence, H is a subgroup of G.
Ex. Show that the intersection of two sub groups of a group G is again a
sub group of G.

 Proof: Let (G, *) be a group.


 Let H1 and H2 are two sub groups of G.
 Let a , b  H1  H2 .
 Now, a , b  H1  a * b-1  H1 ( Since, H1 is a subgroup of G)
 again, a , b  H2  a * b-1  H2 ( Since, H2 is a subgroup of G)
  a * b-1  H1  H2 .
 Hence, H1  H2 is a subgroup of G .
Ex. Show that the union of two sub groups of a group G need not be
a sub group of G.

 Proof: Let G be an additive group of integers.


 Let H1 = { 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, …..}
 and H2 = { 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, …..}
 Here, H1 and H2 are groups w.r.t addition.
 Further, H1 and H2 are subsets of G.
  H1 and H2 are sub groups of G.
 H1  H2 = { 0, 2, 3, 4, 6, …..}
 Here, H1  H2 is not closed w.r.t addition.
 For ex. 2 , 3  G
 But, 2 + 3 = 5 and 5 does not belongs to H1  H2 .
 Hence, H1  H2 is not a sub group of G.
Homomorphism and Isomorphism.

 Homomorphism : Consider the groups ( G, *) and ( G1, )


A function f : G  G1 is called a homomorphism if
f ( a * b) = f(a)  f (b)

 Isomorphism : If a homomorphism f : G  G1 is a bijection then f is


called isomorphism between G and G1 .
Then we write G  G1
Example

Ex. Let R be a group of all real numbers under addition and R+ be a group
of all positive real numbers under multiplication. Show that the
mapping f : R  R+ defined by f(x) = 2x for all x  R is an
isomorphism.
 Solution: First, let us show that f is a homomorphism.
 Let a , b  R .
 Now, f(a+b) = 2a+b
 = 2a 2b
 = f(a).f(b)
  f is an homomorphism.
 Next, let us prove that f is a Bijection.
Contd.,

 For any a , b  R, Let, f(a) = f(b)


  2a = 2 b
  a = b
  f is one.to-one.
 Next, take any c  R+.
 Then log2 c  R and f (log2 c ) = 2 log2 c = c.
  Every element in R+ has a pre image in R.
 i.e., f is onto.
  f is a bijection.
 Hence, f is an isomorphism.
Example

 Ex. Let R be a group of all real numbers under addition and R+ be a


group of all positive real numbers under multiplication. Show that
the mapping f : R+  R defined by f(x) = log10 x for all x  R is
an isomorphism.
 Solution: First, let us show that f is a homomorphism.
 Let a , b  R+ .
 Now, f(a.b) = log10 (a.b)
 = log10 a + log10 b
 = f(a) + f(b)
  f is an homomorphism.
 Next, let us prove that f is a Bijection.
Contd.,

 For any a , b  R+ , Let, f(a) = f(b)


  log10 a = log10 b
  a = b
  f is one.to-one.
 Next, take any c  R.
 Then 10c  R and f (10c) = log10 10c = c.
  Every element in R has a pre image in R+ .
 i.e., f is onto.
  f is a bijection.
 Hence, f is an isomorphism.
Theorem

 Theorem: Consider the groups ( G1, *) and ( G2, ) with identity


elements e1 and e2 respectively. If f : G1  G2 is a group
homomorphism, then prove that
a) f(e1) = e2
b) f(a-1) = [f(a)]-1
c) If H1 is a sub group of G1 and H2 = f(H1),
then H2 is a sub group of G2.
d) If f is an isomorphism from G1 onto G2,
then f –1 is an isomorphism from G2 onto G1.
Proof

 Proof: a) we have in G2,


e2  f(e1) = f (e1) ( since, e2 is identity in G2)
= f (e1 * e1) ( since, e1 is identity in G1)
= f(e1)  f(e1) ( since f is a homomorphism)
e2 = f(e1) ( By right cancellation law )

 b) For any a  G1, we have


f(a)  f(a-1) = f (a * a-1) = f(e1) = e2
and f(a-1)  f(a) = f (a-1 * a) = f(e1) = e2
 f(a-1) is the inverse of f(a) in G2
i.e., [f(a)]-1 = f(a-1)
Contd.,

 c) H2 = f (H1) is the image of H1 under f; this is a subset of G2.


 Let x , y  H2.
 Then x = f(a) , y = f(b) for some a,b H1
 Since, H1is a subgroup of G1, we have a * b-1  H1.
 Consequently,
 x  y-1 = f(a)  [f(b)]-1
 = f(a)  f(b-1)
 = f (a * b-1) f(H1) = H2
 Hence, H2 is a subgroup of G2.
Contd.,

 d) Since f : G1  G2 is an isomorphism, f is a bijection.


  f –1 : G2  G1 exists and is a bijection.
 Let x, y  G2. Then x  y  G2
 and there exists a, b  G1 such that x = f(a) and y = f(b).
  f –1 (x  y ) = f –1 (f(a)  f(b) )
 = f –1 (f (a* b ) )
 = a*b
 = f –1 (x) * f –1 (y)
 This shows that f –1 : G2  G1 is an homomorphism as well.
  f –1 is an isomorphism.
Cosets
 If H is a sub group of( G, * ) and a  G then the set
Ha = { h * a h  H}is called a right coset of H in G.
Similarly aH = {a * h  h  H}is called a left coset of H is G.
 Note:- 1) Any two left (right) cosets of H in G are either identical or
disjoint.
 2) Let H be a sub group of G. Then the right cosets of H form a
partition of G. i.e., the union of all right cosets of a sub group H is
equal to G.
3) Lagrange’s theorem: The order of each sub group of a finite group
is a divisor of the order of the group.
  4) The order of every element of a finite group is a divisor of the
order of the group.
 5) The converse of the lagrange’s theorem need not be true.
State and prove Lagrange’s Theorem

 Lagrange’s theorem: The order of each sub group H of a finite


group G is a divisor of the order of the group.
 Proof: Since G is finite group, H is finite.
 Therefore, the number of cosets of H in G is finite.
 Let Ha1,Ha2, …,Har be the distinct right cosets of H in G.
 Then, G = Ha1Ha2 …, Har
 So that O(G) = O(Ha1)+O(Ha2) …+ O(Har).
 But, O(Ha1) = O(Ha2) = ….. = O(Har) = O(H)
  O(G) = O(H)+O(H) …+ O(H). (r terms)
 = r . O(H)
 This shows that O(H) divides O(G).
Example

 Ex. If G is a group of order p, where p is a prime number. Then the


number of sub groups of G is
 a) 1 b) 2 c) p – 1 d) p
  Ans. b
 Ex. Prove that every sub group of an abelian group is abelian.
 Solution: Let (G, * ) be a group and H is a sub group of G.
 Let a , b  H
 a,bG ( Since H is a subgroup of G)
  a * b = b * a ( Since G is an abelian group)
 Hence, H is also abelian.

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