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Data Communication
and Computer Networks
ITDR2107
Lecture 02
Network Models
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Objectives
After Lecture 2, you should be able to
•Understand the Network communication operations
through Layer approach using Network Models.
•Discuss two different complementary models for what
networks are and how they work.
•Describe the OSI & TCP /IP Models.
•Explain the each layers , its functionality and
associated protocols.
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Layered Approach
• We use the concept of layer in our daily life.
• Consider the example of two friends who communicate
through postal mail as shown in figure
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Components of layered approach

• Service - defines what the layer does, not how it works
• Interface - defines how the layers above and below
interact with it. What parameters exist and what results to
expect
• Protocol - the layer's own business. Can use any
protocol as long as the job gets done. Layer n on one
machine carries on a logical conversation with layer n on
another machine. The rules and conventions used in this
conversation are collectively known as the layer n protocol
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Network Models
• Two models have been devised to define computer
network operations
• OSI Model
• TCP /IP Protocol Suite Model
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ISO's OSI Model

• An ISO ( International Organization for Standardization)
standard that covers all the aspects of network
communication is the OSI - Open Systems Interconnect
• Introduced in the late 1970s.
• Layered protocol model
• Each layer performs specific functions and communicates
with the layers directly above and below it.
• An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two
different system to communicate regardless of their
underlying architecture.
• An OSI is not a protocol, it is a model for understanding
and designing the network architecture that is flexible
robust and interoperable.
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Layers of OSI Model

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Structure of OSI Model

Image source: Google images

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OSI Model (cont.)

Encapsulation DE capsulation
( Assembly) ( Disassembly)
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OSI Model (cont.)

• OSI model is just a guideline for protocol design, not the
actual protocols
• Not all layers are always used
• Internet uses only five layers
• Some layers may be combined together
• Top three layers are normally combined into one layer
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Why a Layered Protocol?

 Idea was originally to get a message across different networks.
 By layering, each layer performs a separate function. Makes
changes and modifications easier. Change of lower layers does
not affect higher layers as long as their interfaces are the same.
 Higher layers deal more with end-to-end communications, user
services and applications.
 Lowest three layers deal primarily with the details of data
transmission in networks.
 Each layer offers certain services to the higher layers, shielding
those layers from the details of how the offered services are
actually implemented.
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Physical Layer 1
• Defines how signals are sent by a media, such as satellite, fibre optics,
coaxial cable.
• Transmits physical bits over the network.
• Concerned with the physical and electrical aspects of communications:
• physical or electrical interfaces between the user equipment and the
network equipment
• signal and encoding
• Protocols/standards include:
• RS-232, RS-449, ISDN, Ethernet
• Sometimes called the “bit pipe”
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Data Link Layer 2

• Defines frames
• Sends and receives frames
• Sender
• Accepts messages from the higher layer
• Breaks them into frames
• Hands these frames to the physical layer
• Receiver
• Receives frames from the physical layer
• Assembles them into messages
• Hands the messages to the next higher layer
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Data Link Layer (cont.)

• Detects or corrects errors to ensure error-free messages
• CRC, Hamming codes
• Flow control between two adjacent network nodes.
• Error control - deals with damaged, lost, and duplicate
frames
• Sub layers:
• Medium Access Control (MAC)
• Logical Link Control (LLC)
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Network Layer 3

• Network layer are responsible for delivery of individual packets from

source to destination
• Determines routes from source to destination.
• Send messages hop by hop to the destination.
• Control of congestion
• Manages billing information
• Address mapping
• Interconnection of heterogeneous networks
• Hides differences of various networks such as length of packets
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Transport Layer 4

• Transport layer is responsible for delivery of a message to

delivery from one process to another
• Accepts data from session layer, splits it into smaller units
if needed, and passes information to network layer.
• Ensures pieces all arrive correctly at receiver and
reassembles them into the original order.
• Flow control between source and destination.
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Transport Layer (cont.)

• Connection management
• Establish and delete connections.
• Might establish multiple connections for a high throughput
application.
• May multiplex several transport connections onto the same
network connection.
• True end-to-end layer.
• At this layer, the program on the source machine carries on a
conversation with a similar program on the destination machine.
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Transport Layer
• Lower three layers define how a network operates.
• Transport layer is the first to define end-to-end
communications.
• Does not involve intermediate nodes.
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Transport Layer (cont.)

 Flow control
 Error detection
 Response to users' requests
 Two types of transport services
 connection-oriented
 connectionless
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Why Two Layers?

• Why are there two distinct layers, network and transport?
• Network layer
• communication subnet
• run by carriers
• may be unreliable
• no control by users
• improve the quality of service
• Transport layer
• independent of network service interface
• primary function enhance QoS
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Why Two Layers? (cont.)

• Network service offered by real (unreliable) networks
• Transport service (connection-oriented) is reliable
• Network service used by transport entities
• Transport service used by application programs
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Overview of Transport Layer

• Transport layer uses primitives, provided by network
layer, to send and receive data.
• Transport Protocol Data Unit (TPDU)
• NL_send(TPDU, NL_address) and NL_recv(TPDU)
• Each layer adds its part
• TCP segment, IP packet, Data link frame
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Overview of Transport Layer (cont.)

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Overview of Transport Layer (cont.)

• Quality of Service (QoS)
• QoS parameters
• Throughput, transit delay, error ratio
• User specify
• preferred, acceptable, and minimum
• Some parameters for connectionless transport
• Transport layer determines
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Overview of Transport Layer (cont.)

• QoS negotiation
• Transport user proposes QoS parameters
• Transport layer may
• realize unacceptable
• report failure
• Transport layer
• cannot achieve desired goal
• can achieve lower but acceptable goal
• notifies destination
• Destination machine may change or reject
• Originating user informed
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Session Layer 3
• Session layer is responsible for dialog control & sychronization
• Allows applications on two different computers to establish a session
or logical connection.
• May coordinate the process by determining when each is to send or
listen (synchronisation).
• Session error recovery.
• Brackets operations that must appear to the user as a single
transaction (database).
• Used in some applications, such as remote login, remote file transfer
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Presentation Layer 2
• Responsible for presenting data in a format its user can understand.
• Hides character encoding differences
• Translates data formats, such as EBCDIC and ASCII
• May provide security services such as encryption and decryption.
• Data compression
• Concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
transmitted.
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Application Layer 1
• Responsible for providing services to users
• Communicates with the user or application programs.
• Not the same as an application program
• Provides services and protocols for electronic mail, file
transfers, virtual terminal.
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Summary of the OSI Layers

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Layer Functions Examples

Application Layer 7 User access, Network HTTP FTP SMTP
process the application TELNET
Presentation Layer 6 Data Representation JPEG MP3
Encryption / Decryption
Session Layer 5 Interhost SAP RTP
communication, mange
multiple connections,
maintains
synchronization
Transport Layer 4 Reliable and Flow TCP UDP
control, end to end
delivery
Network Layer 3 Logical addressing used IP
by routers and host
Data Link Layer 2 Use MAC address, error HDLC Frame Relay
detection ATM
Physical Layer 1 Specify voltage, media, Modem V.35
binary transmission
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TCP/IP Model / Protocol Suite

• TCP/IP Protocol suite developed prior to OSI Model
• TCP /IP stands for Transmission Communication Protocol
/ Internet protocol is a protocol suite ( a set of protocols
organized in different layers)
• It was designed and developed by US Dept. of Defense
and it is based on standard protocol.
• It contains four layers unlike seven layers in the OSI
Model
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TCP/IP Model
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Application Layer
• Equivalent to OSI Application, Presentation and Session
layers
• Data formatting
• Data translation
• Data Encryption
• Session establishment
• Control services
• Provides network access to application via protocols like:
• FTP (File Transfer Protocol), HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol),
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), SMTP (Simple Mail
Transfer Protocol), SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol),
DNS (Domain Name System), ...
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Transport Layer
• Roughly Equivalent to OSI Transport layer
• Data Transportation
• Data Sequencing
• Flow control and error checking
• Two main protocols
• Connection-oriented: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
• Connectionless: User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
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Internetwork Layer
• Equivalent to OSI network layer
• Network Addressing
• Data Routing
• Protocols at this layer:
• Define addressing methods: Internet Protocol (IP)
• Trace messages and handle routing errors: Internet Control Message
Protocol (ICMP)
• Report group memberships: Internet Group Management Protocol
(IGMP)
• Provide address resolution: Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
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Network Interface Layer

• Equivalent to OSI Data Link and Physical layers
• Media access control
• Data encoding/decoding and signal transmission to the medium
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SUMMARY
• A model that defines layering is the ISO's OSI Model.
• OSI reference model separates networking into 7 layers.
• Two layers of OSI model session and presentation are
missing from TCP/IP Model.
• TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol suite made of four layers.
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References
• Greg Tomsho, Ed Tittel, Greg Johnson, Guide to
Networking Essentials, 5th Edition
• Behrouz A. Forouzan, Data Communications and
Networking, 4th, McGraw Hill
• William A. Shay, Understanding Communications and
Networks, 3rd Edition.