A Presentation on Underground Stoping

Methods -II
Index
 Shrinkage Stoping
 Cut and fill Stoping
 Introduction to Square Set Stoping
 Sublevel Caving
 Block Caving
 Top Slicing
Shrinkage Stoping - Contents
 Description
 Application or Applicability
 Preparation
 Advantages
 Disadvantages
 Comparison with sublevel open stoping and Cut & fill
method of stoping
Cut and fill Mining - Contents
 Description
 Application or Applicability
 Preparation
 Advantages
 Disadvantages
Square Set Stoping - Contents
 Description
 Application or Applicability
 Preparation
 Advantages
 Disadvantages
Cut and fill Mining – Description
 In cut and fill mining the ore is excavated by drilling and blasting
in horizontal slices, starting from the bottom of a stope and
advancing upwards as in shrinkage stoping. A slice has a
thickness of not more than 3m. The broken ore is loaded and
completely removed from the stope. When one slice of ore has
been excavated, the corresponding volume is filled with waste
material upto within 2-3 m of the back before the next slice is
attacked. The filling serves both as support for the walls and as a
floor when the next slice above is mined.
Cut and fill Mining – Description (Contd.)
 The filling material may be waste rock excavated during development, crushed
and distributed mechanically over the stope area. In modern cut and fill, however,
the hydraulic filling method is a normal practice. The filling material may be mill
tailings from the ore dressing plant, sand, crushed rock, boiler plant ash or slag of
smelter plants. The mill tailings should be of coarse size as fine tailings , available
from the mills where the ore needs to be crushed very fine for treatment, are easily
washed away by the flowing water. The filling material mixed with water, is
transported into the mine and distributed through pipelines. When the water is
drained off a solid consolidated fill with a smooth surface is produced. Sometimes
the material in the last pour in a fill is mixed with cement to provide a hard
working surface.
Cut and fill Mining – Applicability
 Cut and fill mining can be used with steeply dipping as well as large
deposits with irregular outline can be worked. It is thus a versatile method.
 The filling operations are easier with steeper deposits. An important
advantage of this method is the flexibility and high degree of extraction.
 Compared to sublevel stoping and high shrinkage stoping, cut and fill
method offers advantage of selectivity. High grade ore can be extracted
leaving the low grade ore behind in the fill.
 Dilution of ore is very little. It is therefore often used for ores with irregular
boundaries, ores of rather high value and unstable wall rocks.
 This method is preferred to other mining methods where ground surface is
to be prevented from subsidence.
Cut and fill Mining – Preparation
The ore block may be prepared in the same way as for shrinkage
stoping but the chute raises are not funneled out at the top. The
preparations of :
 Haulage drift along the ore body at the lower main level.
 Undercut of the stope, usually 5-10 m above the haulage drift.
 Short raises for manways and ore passes from haulage drift to
undercut.
 Raise from undercut to the level above for transport of material and
for ventilation.
Cut and fill Mining – Preparation (Contd.)
 Provision of sufficient water and filling material and arrangement for
their storage and transport.
 Adequate pumping capacity underground to pump out water overflowing
from the filled stope.
The ore slice in cut and fill can be drilled in two different ways, with
horizontal shot holes or with upward, vertical holes. With the later method
a certain headroom is required between the back and the fill surface,
usually 2.5-3m. After blasting and removal of the ore, this distance is
increased to 6-7m, which means that a comparatively competent ore and
hanging wall are required.
Figure 2.16
Cut and fill Mining – Preparation (Contd.)
For the drilling, light rock drills on simple wagons are often used. More
mechanised drill rigs can also be used. An advantage of the up-hole drilling
method is that large sections of the root can be drilled without interruptions
and large rounds can be blasted.
After every 2.4-2.5m slice of ore has been stripped from the back, a series of
specially cut planks of wood are built up above each chute to within about 2.5m
of the back. Waste filling material is now placed in the stope between adjacent
timbered chutes and between the end chutes and the barricades.
As the stope proceeds upwards, timbering and filling proceed on a cyclic basis.
When the crown pillar is reached, the stope is completed and abandoned.
Figure 2.17
 Cut and fill Mining – Preparation (Contd.)
Where hydraulic filling is adopted it is possible to fill the stope almost completely,
close to the back. In this case the drilling has to be performed with roughly horizontal
holes in a vertical face. The drilling equipment may consist of light air-leg rock drills
or rubber-tyred hydra boom jumbos. With this method, the size of the round is
limited which is, in a way, an advantage for controlling the roof. Horizontal stopes
are normally found these days in improved cut and fill mines.
Cut and fill methods permit of mechanisation of drilling, and loading operations.
With the complete back filling and horizontal drilling, scraping becomes difficult
and other method of loading have to be considered. Rocker shovels are suitable for
loading in stopes, where the operation is characterized by a comparitively short haul.
In comparison with scrapers these shovels are more versatile, clean the stope
efficiently and work is unaffected by curves and supports.
Cut and fill Mining – Preparation (Contd.)
Cut and fill mining has a very broad range of applications, due
to the flexibility, good recovery and the possibility of mining
under rather weak rock conditions. The hydraulic fill has
improved the economic and technical aspects of this method.
A characteristic of this method is that the cut and fill is a cyclic
operation, ore production from a stope is discontinuous, as the
mining has be interrupted during the filling; with hydraulic fill
the filling period, however, is a compariaively short.
Cut and fill Mining – Advantages
 Unlike in shrinkage stoping, ore is removed immediately after blasting.
Hence no capital remain blocked up. There are no fire hazards and no
oxidation problem.
 It is a safe method. A large area is not exposed and the workers work in
newly exposed area which does not get sufficient time to deteriorate.
 Preparatory arrangements or stoping are not heavy. Stopes can be
brought into production comparatively quickly provided arrangements
are made in advance for filling operations.
 Ventilation is comfortable because of small area of stope for air current.
Cut and fill Mining – Advantages (Contd.)
 Dilution of ore is reduced to the minimum as there is no spalling of
wall rock.
 General safety in the mine is increased as there are no old stopes to
collapse or transfer their roof stresses to existing stope.
 Secondary blasting can be done in the stope.
 The method provides permanent support for structures and other
features on the surface which must not be disturbed.
 Mill tailings, if they are used for filling, reduce their disposal problem
on the surface.
Cut and fill Mining – Disadvantages
 As cut is a cyclic method, production of ore is intermittent
unless a few stopes are worked simultaneously. When
production operations are suspended in one stope for
filling the other stopes should be able to supply ore.
 Suitable filling material may not be available in all cases.
Arrangements for procuring filling material and
transport to the stope involves a sizable cost.
Square Set Stoping - Contents
 Description
 Application or Applicability
 Preparation
 Advantages
 Disadvantages
Square Set Stoping – Description
 Square set stoping is the method of mining in which the walls and
back of the stope are supported by regular frame work of timber
called Square sets. The frame work forms rectangular hollow
prisms, in the space from which the ore has been extracted.
 The square set stope is a timbered stope, i.e. a stope in which
timbering is the dominant feature of the method of support and
includes “stulled stopes” also. A square set stoping is one in which
the sets alone provide support to the walls and back. If waste rock
filling is used to fill up the square, such filling provides additional
support and the method is then called “filled square set stoping”.
Square Set Stoping – Description (Contd.)
 The mining extraction of ore follows generally the
overhead practice. In soft loose ground square sets may be
carried underhand rather than in more usual overhead
direction since pressure from the top is thereby taken care
of.
 Mining large, weak deposits by square-setting usually
requires a division of the orebody between any two levels,
into stoping blocks of limited horizontal area. Size of
blocks depends on strength of ground, so that work in
any block is rapid enough to avoid excessive pressure.
Square Set Stoping – Applicability
 Where the walls of the orebody and back of the stope are
weak and do not stand without support even for a week.
 For recovery of fractured remnants and pillars.
 Can be used in almost any size of deposit regardless of its
shape or depth.
 Ore shaped of high grade to pay for the mechanical
mining as square set stoping is costly and labour intensive
method.
Square Set Stoping – Preparation
 The four vertical timbers of a square set are called posts. To start
timbering a stope with square sets, sills are laid in trenches cut in
the floor of the stope. A clear height of 2m is about the minimum
height desirable, and at a number of mines posts are 2.3 m high in
the clear, particularly on main levels on sill floors. The figure in the
next slide shows a method of square set stoping adopting
underhand method of mining.
 The method of stoping is labour intensive, costly and requires
skilled labour or setting in the timber in a systematic manner. It is
adopted in Balaghat mines of MOIL in M.P. The scarcity of timber
and gradual depletion of skilled labour makes the system
unpopular and may no longer be used in this mine which is now
practising it.
Figure 2.18
Square Set Stoping – Advantages
 Irregular orebodies of any shape may be worked by this method.
 It can be adopted where the ground conditions are bad.
 Waste rock can be sorted out and allowed to remain in the stope.
 The grade of the ore can be controlled as each new face can be
sampled and assayed before the ore is drilled. In those mines
where the ore varies greatly in values, this flexibility of the square
set stoping is an advantage.
 If the sets are filled with waste rocks as soon as possible after they
are erected, only a small space is open at a time.
Square Set Stoping – Disadvantages
 A large quantity of timber is required. It constitutes a fire
hazard.
 Production of the ore is low and the O.M.S. is poor.
 It is a labour intensive method.
 Square set stoping has a high accident chances than to other
methods of stoping.
In spite of the disadvantages stated here, the Square set stoping
is one method which is adopted when other methods of mining
exclusive of caving method, are not applicable for reasons of
selective mining or for the support problems involved.
Block Caving - Contents
 Description
 Application or Applicability
 Preparation
 Advantages
 Disadvantages
 Block Caving
Description

 If an opening made during stoping is large enough, it will

eventually cave, even in the firmest and strongest rock, but a
caving system of mining like block caving, etc. requires that
the ore or rock will cave over a small unsupported area.
 In block caving the ore is divided in large blocks with a
horizontal cross section usually larger than 1000 m2. At the
bottom the block is completely undercut i.e. a horizontal slot
is blasted, which removes the support of the over-lying ore.
Block Caving – Description (Contd.)
 The undercutting creates a series of fractures in the ore
body which gradually affects the whole block. The ore at
the lower part of the block is crushed by the cracks upper
portion and gives a fragmentation which allows the ore to
be drawn through a net work of finger and branch raises
and draw points. The drilling and blasting is required
only in the lower portion of ore-body. The upper portion
caves down.
Block Caving – Applicability
Block is used in large ore bodies.
 The ore body should have a steep dip (not absolutely necessary for
very large, massive ore bodies)
 Ore should be weak enough to cave under its own weight. Wall
rocks should be weak enough to cave under the weight of the
overburden.
 Ore should be of comparatively low value of grade. A fairly
uniform distribution of values in the ore is necessary.
Block Caving – Applicability (Contd.)
 As in sublevel caving, the surface should be allowed to
subside. Because of these conditions for application block
caving has a limited applications. The most common
applications are to be found in iron ores and low-grade
disseminated ores e.g. those containing copper or
molybdenum.
Block Caving – Preparation
Preparation for block caving consists normally of :
 Loading on haulage drifts in a regular pattern below the
bottom of the ore block.
 Ore pass of finger raises upto a grizzly level, from such
loading/haulage drifts.
 A grizzly level for control of the ore and secondary blasting.
 Finger raises and cone upto the undercut.
Block Caving – Preparation (Contd.)
 Making an undercut.
This development refers to a lay-out where the ore is loaded
through chute into mine cars. With draw-point loading the
preparation can be simplified by excluding points 2 and 3.
All excavations below the block are subjected to high rock
pressure. The cross section of the drifts must therefore be
limited and heavy reinforcement is often necessary.
Block Caving – Preparation (Contd.)
The preparation can be characterized as complicated and
time-consuming; several years are often required for
preparation and the commencement of caving.
 Due to the complicated preparation and narrow sections
mechanised methods are often difficult to apply, except for
the preparation of the main level below the block.
 The fig. 1 and 2 give typical layouts for block caving. The ore
is undercut with a series of draw-points and grizzly levels.
Figure 2.20
Figure 2.21
Block Caving – Preparation (Contd.)
 To enable the ore to fall into the haulage drives a series of transfer
raises are used below the grizzly level. To start the ore caving, the
draw point raises are drilled and blasted into expanded inverted
cones until they meet.
 After the ore is undercut cracks develop in the upper solid portion
of the ore which eventually breaks up. The large blocks of and
overburden as they move downwards crush each other to grind the
ore to size sufficient for passage through the draw points.
Secondary blasting is however required.
Block Caving – Advantages
 Mining cost is low and may be nearly as economic as in
opencast method of mining.
 After the caving starts a high rate of production is
possible.
 The accident rate is fairly low.
 Control of ventilation is less complex to other methods of
mining.
Block Caving – Disadvantages
 The capital expense is large. Preparation for the stope is
complicated and time consuming.
 Caving of a block is difficult to control.
 The ore is diluted with waste and there is some loss of ore.
 There must be careful supervision of ore drawing.
 Low grade ore in the overburden and at the margin of the ore
body is lost or there is excessive dilution if caving is uncontrolled.
 There is no chance of selective mining of high and low grade ore. It
must be taken as it comes.
Block Caving – Disadvantages (Contd.)
 Secondary blasting is required on a large scale as big chunks of ore
come down during caving.
 Mechanisation is possible only to a limited extent.
 As in all methods of caving, a large flow of surface water or ground
water finds its way through the caved area during monsoon to the
underground workings and the mine must be equipped with
adequate pumping capacity.
At present block caving is not adopted at any of the mines in India.
Top Slicing - Contents
 Description
 Application or Applicability
 Preparation
 Advantages
 Disadvantages
Top Slicing – Description
 This method is classified as a caving method as the over-
burden caves in. The ore does not cave in and it has to be
extracted by drilling and blasting. In top slicing, the stoping
unit is termed a slice. This slice is virtually a timbered drift
driven beneath the overburden in the opening stage;
afterwards it is upto the caved timber mat above. In length it
extends from the raise, or other starting point to the margin
predetermined for limit of the stope block.
Top Slicing – Description (Contd.)
 In this method, the ore is mined out in a series of horizontal
slices by drilling and blasting, beginning at the top of the
orebody. Immediately beneath the overburden as the ore form
first slice is being taken out timber supports are erected on the
floor of the slice. As ore extraction of the first slice, i.e. top slice
continues, a timbered mat is spread out on the floor of the first
slice. The timber mat consists of thin wooden logos (about
125mm dia.) and thick wooden planks suitably tied together by
wire.
Top Slicing – Description (Contd.)
 After a reasonable progress in extracting of the top slice
the roof is induced to cave in by removal of timber
supports and rest on the spread-out timber mat. The next
slice of the orebody is then extracted by drilling and
blasting working under the caved overburden resting on
the timber mat, i.e. the workmen have to work below an
artificial roof of timber mat. The slices, each about 2-3 m
thick, are then extracted in a descending manner.
Figure 2.22
Top Slicing – Applicability
The method is applicable to
 Thick deposits of horizontal extent. The minimum thickness of ore
body should be 2-3m in mining available ores but in most cases the
suitable thickness is 6-8m.
 Soft ore which is weak enough to stand without support only for a
short period.
 Weak walls and overburden which can easily cave in.
 Ground surface which is not to be supported and is allowed to subside.
Top Slicing – Applicability (Contd.)
 Areas with cheap and plentiful supply of timber, as well as skilled
timbermen. The timber need not be of high quality but should be
tough and strong to with stand crushing on a few occasions
before breaking.
 Where market conditions are such that the mine is facing with
occasional shut-downs, the stope’s ore slices may be blasted down
so that the orebody remains in good condition for resumption of
operations on short notice even after idleness of considerable
duration.
Top Slicing – Applicability (Contd.)
 Although considerable preparatory development is
required prior to beginning slicing operation, once this
development is well started, large quantities of ore can be
produced.
 Top slicing can be employed under sand and other loose
surface materials and does not require as clean a mat as
does sublevel caving.
Top Slicing – Preparation

 The top slicing and sublevel caving methods of

mining are similar in development and in many
aspects of ore removal. The development for top
slicing consists of driving a series of drifts and
crosscuts at some distance below the top level and
then raising to the top of the ore for mining.
Top Slicing – Preparation (Contd.)
 The ore is removed in slices 2-3 m thick. A block is divided into
horizontal slices (I), (II), (III),(IV) etc. A haulage way is driven
through the ore body and from it a two-compartment timbered
raise containing an ore chute and a manway is constructed
throughout the entire height of the block upto the overburden.
From this raise a drift is driven under the overburden near and
parallel to foot wall. The drift extends to each end of the block.
From the body of the drift cross-cuts are driven to the hanging
wall.
Top Slicing – Preparation (Contd.)
 These cross cuts are then mined out to a reasonable width and
mining progresses towards the raise.
 The drift is timbered upon removing the ore from the slice; its
floor is covered with a timber mat. The timber props are then
blasted down and the over burden is allowed to subside onto what
was formerly the floor of the ore slice. The figure in the next slide
shows the stage after slice I has been removed. After mining of the
slice II, slice III is extracted and in this manner the complete
orebody in the block is mined out.
Figure 2.23
Top Slicing – Advantages
 It is a safe method to use where overhand stoping cannot be
employed.
 It is suitable for intermittent operations.
 The method permits of high recovery and dilution is little.
 After the initial development is completed, the method can be
reasonably cheap, provided the labour and timber are cheap.
 It can be employed under sand or other loose materials, and does
not require as clean a mat as is required for sublevel caving.
Top Slicing – Disadvantages
 The method causes surface subsidence.
 Ventilation is somewhat difficult and the timber mat in conjunction
with sulphide ores can be source of fire.
 A considerable number of working places are needed for a large
output and the rate is not flexible.
 Period of development prior to production is fairly long.
 Handling of timber and laying of mats is expensive in labour and
time consuming as in the case of square set mining. About one third
of the labour force is used for timber handling.
Top Slicing – Disadvantages
 If the roof does not collapse over a long period, its sudden collapse results
in air blast and can be dangerous in the slice below.
 Waste or low grade ore cannot be easily left in place. The method is not
adapted to sorting of waste in the stopes.
 Rate of output cannot be suddenly increased to meet market demands,
unless development is considerably in advance of normal production
requirements.
Top Slicing is not adopted at any of the mines in India. In foreign countries
where it is adopted, the timber mat is now-a-days replaced by wire netting.
Sublevel Caving - Contents
 Description
 Application or Applicability
 Preparation
 Advantages
 Disadvantages
Sublevel Caving – Description
 Sub-level caving is a development of top slicing method and
resembles it in many ways. Sub-level caving is a caving method
where the overburden and part of the ore is induced to cave in.
The overburden and the ore must be weak enough to cave readily.
This method should not be confused with sub-level stoping in
which all the ore is extracted by drilling and blasting and the ore
as well as the wall rocks have to be strong.
 Sub-level caving is carried out with timber mat as in top slicing but
in recent years the timber mat is replaced by wire netting. Wire
netting was used in the sublevel caving method practiced at Gidi
Colliery for artificial roof.
Sublevel Caving – Description (Contd.)
 In sublevel caving the ore is divided by sub-levels with 8-
10 m vertical spacing. The sub-levels are developed with a
regular network of drifts, covering the whole area of the
ore. The access to the sub-levels is usually by a ramp
system. Each sub-level consists of 2 or 3 slices and the ore
at each sublevel is brought by drilling and blasting. The
figure in the next slide shows the method of sub-level
caving when the drilling, blasting and loading operations
are carried out at each sub-level.
Fig.2.24
Sublevel Caving – Description (Contd.)
 When developing the sub-level with a regular network of drifts,
the wide ore bodies, the drifts cross the ore from a footwall drift.
But in narrow deposits the drifts are made along the strike.
From the drifts, the ore is drilled with a fan-shaped pattern in
an upward direction. Blasting of the fans starts at the hanging
walls or at the ends of the ore and proceeds toward the foot-
wall or the ore pass. Several drifts and levels are worked
simultaneously to keep a roughly even retreating front.
Sublevel Caving – Description (Contd.)
 When a fan is blasted the ore caves into the drift, where it is
loaded and transported to ore-passes. The hanging wall caves
continuously and follows the extraction of ore. This caves a
dilution of the ore with waste rock which increases during the
loading operation. When the dilution reaches a certain limit,
loading is interrupted and a new fan blasted. A certain
percentage of the ore is therefore not recovered. The dilution
may vary between 10 and 35% and the ore loss between 5 and
20%.
Sublevel Caving – Applicability
 Sublevel Caving is used in steeply dipping ores and in other
deposits with a comparatively large vertical thickness.
 Sublevel drifts must be largely self supporting. As the drifts
are the widest self supported spaces that are required, the
method can be used in rather weak ore.
 The hanging wall should preferably not be too stable as a
continuous caving of the hanging wall should follow the ore
extraction.
Sublevel Caving – Applicability (Contd.)
 The surface conditions must allow subsidence.
 Due to the dilution and loss of ore, sublevel caving is
mostly used for ores which are not too valuable or which
can be concentrated by a relatively cheap ore dressing
process.
 Sublevel Caving – Preparation and
Development
 The main part of the preparation consists of the very comprehensive drifting on
the sublevels. Upto 20 % of the ore is recovered during the development. In
addition to the drifts, ore passes and raises are required to connect the sublevels
with the main levels.
 Initially a 20 % inclined service ramp is driven in the footwall rock (fig. in the
next slide). It is preferable to start at the top of a mining block and drive the
ramp downgrade so that gravity can assist in mucking the blasted development
round, and also access can be gained more quickly to the initial production
area. The ramp normally turns at 180° about every 150m to keep it reasonably
close to the rock disposal pass. The result is an elongated spiraling downgrade
service tuned which stays within the limits of the mining block.
 Sublevel Caving – Preparation and
Development (Contd.)
 Sublevels are established by driving horizontal access drifts off the
ramp approximately every 9m vertically. A haulage drift is then driven
in the footwall rock about 10m from the footwall ore contact. Parallel
or extraction drifts 11 to 12 m apart are driven from the footwall drift
across the ore body to then hanging wall contact. A slot drift is then
driven in ore along the hanging wall contact interconnecting all of the
extraction drifts at the hanging wall as well as the footwall.
 In general, drifts in rock are 4.3m wide by 3.7m high, while in ore
they are 4.9m wide by 3.7m high; a wide drift improves recovery.
Sublevel Caving – Advantages
 It can be applied to both hard and moderately weak ground.
 It is flexible so it can be applied to irregular ore bodies and wide
or narrow ore bodies down to about 3.7 m.
 All operations take place in drift-size headings that can be self-
supported and provide good conditions for accident prevention.
 It is suitable for a high degree of mechanization.
 No pillars are left for subsequent high cost mining or lost ore
and the method has been successfully applied to pillar recovery.
Sublevel Caving – Advantages
 The sublevel caving method is regular and permits of systematic
working. Development, production drilling and loading are carried
out at separate levels, continuously and independently of each
other. A large number of working places are always available for
the different operation. These factors taken together make sublevel
caving very suitable for mechanisation and efficient mining.

 The OMS in sub-level caving is higher that in top-slicing. Further

the cost for timber is lower and less development work is required
than in top-slicing. The method can be applied to somewhat wet
and sticky ores not suitable for block caving.
Sub-level Caving – Disadvantages
 The unfavourable factors for sublevel caving are
 There is usually more dilution of the ore in this method
than in top slicing and square set stoping.
 There is practically no sorting of ore in the stopes.
 The stopes are difficult to ventilate.
 Low-grade ore in the overburden or near the boundary of
the deposits is lost.
 High development cost.