Module 2

Syllabus
• Construction : Components of a building-
• Foundation- types of foundations- isolated footing, combined footing,
raft, pile & well foundations- Foundation for Machinery Super
structure:
• Brick masonry, English bond and Flemish bond,
• Stone masonry-Ashlar masonry- Rubble masonry.
• Roofing- Steel trusses, roofing for industrial buildings
BUILDING COMPONENTS
1. SUB STRUCTURE :
• Below ground level
• direct contact with ground
• Transmit the load of superstructure to ground

2.SUPER STRUCTURE :
• Above ground level
• Consist of walls, floor, doors, windows, stairs, lifts, parapet
etc.
BUILDING COMPONENTS & FUNCTIONS

• Foundation • Sill
• Plinth • Sunshade
• Floors • Stairs
• Walls • Roof
• Step • Parapet
• Doors
• Windows
• Lintel
Sectional view
Components of a building
 FOUNDATION

• The lowest part of the building

• Transfer the load of super structure to the
soil.
• Mainly it has two type :
1. Shallow
2. Deep
Shallow foundation
 PLINTH

.Lowest part of super structure

. Between ground Level and ground floor level.
.Transfer load of super structure to substructure
. DPC is provided at the Plinth level to prevent Moisture from rising to the walls of
the building
FLOORS

• Supports occupants, furniture and other

equipments
• Creates more accommodation within limited
space
• Strong, durable, damp proof and heat protected
 WALLS
• Structure constructed above the plinth

• To separate usable area

of floor for different
purposes
Step
• Provides access to the building from ground level to floor
 DOORS
• Doors serve as the entry of the building
• Ensures safety to the building
WINDOWS
• WINDOWS SERVE FOR ENTRY OF LIGHT AND AIR IN BUILDING.
STAIRS
• Steps allows movement from one floor to another floor and continous series of
steps is called flight.
ROOFS
• Roofs provide cover to the building and protect against the rain water
LINTELS
• Provided for supporting walls above DOORS AND WINDOWS
SILL
• Provided Below window Opening to support the window frame
SUNSHADE
• PROVIDED ABOVE WINDOW OPENING
• PROTET FROM RAIN AND SUN
PARAPET

• A short masonry wall build over the top of the roof of the building. It
gives good appearance
Foundation
• Foundation is that part of building which is in contact with the ground
and transmitting load to it
FUNCTIONS OF FOUNDATION
1. LOAD DISTRIBUTION

• To transmit load from the building to a larger area without causing failure of the
soil

• The loads include DL, LL, WL etc.

2. SETTLEMENT CONTROL

• To prevent excessive settlement of the building.

• Settlement of foundation may be classified as

a. Uniform

b. Tilt

c. Non Uniform Settlement ( Differential settlement )

FUNCTIONS OF FOUNDATION
3. STABILITY REQUIREMENT

• To provide stability to the structure against various disturbing forces such as wind,
rain, earthquake etc.

• Dead weight of foundation provides stability for the structure.

• It provides anchoring to the ground.

4. FIRM & LEVEL SURFACE

• Foundation provide a firm and level surface for construction of super structure.
 CLASSIFICATION
• DEPENDING ON DEPTH, the foundations can be classified as

SHALLOW FOUNDATION DEEP FOUNDATION

• If depth of the foundation is less than or • When depth is more than width, it is
equal to width, then foundation is known as DEEP FOUNDATION.
known as SHALLOW FOUNDATION.

• (D/B) < 1 • (D/B ) > 1

• Shallow foundation is the one which is • Its placed on the soil that is not firm
placed on a firm soil or rock near the and which is considerably below the
ground and beneath the lowest part of lowest part of super structure.
the superstructure.
 SHALLOW FOUNDATION

SHALLOW FOUNDATION

Strap/ Raft or
Wall or Isolated Combined Mat
strip footing Cantilever
footing foundatio
footing footing n
 FOOTING
A footing is a relatively small slab giving separate support to a part of a structure.
Footing is another term which is used along with foundation.
It is a foundation unit constructed in concrete or masonry under the base of a
column or wall.
A foundation may have one or more footings.
Eg: An individual footing supports a single column or a single wall

（ A ） Column Footing (B ） Wall Footing

 WALL OR STRIP FOOTING
• Provided for throughout the length of a continuous structure such as a load
bearing wall

• May be simple footing or stepped footing

WALL OR STRIP FOOTING

STEPPED STRIP FOOTING

 ISOLATED FOOTING
• Footing provided for columns carrying small or medium loads.
• A footing is provided for each column & hence the name isolated.
• A simple isolated footing is provided when the load on the column is small
• For more depth of the foundation (medium loads) a stepped or sloped footing may be
used to achieve economy
• Isolated footings are provided under each column and may be square, rectangular, or
circular in plan. Footing may be flat or tapered
ISOLATED FOOTING
ISOLATED FOOTING
 Combined Footing
• Supports two or more columns
• The shape is rectangular or trapezoidal
1. Rectangular shape if both columns carry equal loads
2. Trapezoidal unequal loads on columns
• To avoid uneven loading of soil  is proportioned so that its centroid of the footing
area coincides with the centre of gravity of loads acting on the footing
 Combined Footing
Adopted when
1. when the isolated footings overlap.
2. B.C of soil is less , require more area for
individual footing.
3. Constructed near boundaries of the plot
4. When heavy column loads.

For:-
5. Lift well column,
6. water tank support columns
Combined Footing
Combined Footing
 Strap footing/Cantilever footing
• Also combined footing.
Adopted when
• The load from the column near the boundary line is to be partially
transferred to an interior column but the distance between the
columns is high
• One column is eccentrically loaded
• Loads on the columns are small but distance between them high 
trapezoidal uneconomical.
• Consists of two footings connected with a structural strap so that they
behave as a single unit
• The strap acts as a connecting beam and it does not take any soil reaction
Strap footing/Cantilever footing
 Raft/Mat foundation
Covers the entire area beneath a structure
and supports all the walls & columns
Adopted when
• Building loads are heavy
• Allowable soil pressure is small
• Individual footings would require
more than half the area of the
building
• Differential settlement is likely to
occur in the soil
• Structure is subjected to hydraulic
uplift
Raft/Mat foundation
Raft/Mat foundation
 DEEP FOUNDATION

DEEP FOUNDATION

Pile Well/caisson
Foundations Foundations
 PILE FOUNDATION
Pile foundations are the part of a structure used to carry and transfer the
load of the structure to the bearing ground located at some depth below
ground surface .
The main components are the pile cap and the piles
 PILE
• Piles are long and slender members which transfer the load to deeper soil
or rock of high bearing capacity avoiding shallow soil of low bearing
capacity
• The main types of materials used for piles are Wood, steel and concrete.

FUNCTIONS OF PILES
1. to transmit a foundation load
to a solid ground
2. to resist vertical, lateral and
uplift load
 PILE FOUNDATION
Adopted When..???..

1. Loose foundation soil but hard strata

available at a depth of 10-15m.
2. Heavy DL & LL.
3. Position of W.T Fluctuate.
4. If Raft or Grillage foundations are not
economical.
5. Subsoil water level is high –other type of
foundation is difficult.
6. Top layer of soil has very low BC.
7. When there is a canal or deep drainage lines
near by.
 PILE FOUNDATION
Adopted When..???..

8. The top layer of expansive soil.

9. Suitable where deep strip foundation is not possible
 PILE FOUNDATION
CLASSIFICATIONS OF PILES

1.Load bearing
I. End Bearing piles
II. Friction piles
2.Non-Load bearing
III. Compaction piles
IV. Sheet piles
V. Anchor Piles
VI. Fender Piles
 END BEARING PILES
• End bearing piles are those which terminate in hard, relatively impenetrable
material such as rock or very dense sand and gravel.
• These piles transfer their load on to a firm stratum.
• The pile behaves as an ordinary column and should be designed as such.
 FRICTION PILES
• Generate sufficient load bearing capacity by friction.
• Driven up to a depth where the total frictional resistance developed on the side
is equal to load coming on pile.
• These piles transmit most of their load to the soil through skin friction
 COMPACTION PILE
• Soil available is very loose.
• Compact the soil & increase load BC.
• Not load carrying Piles
• sand Piles are- compaction piles
 SHEET PILE
• Reduce seepage flow
• Steel ,timber or concrete
• Not load carrying Piles

Usage:-
1. Retain the side excavation
2. Construct retaining walls
3. Protect river banks
4. Prevent seepage below dams
 ANCHOR PILE
• Provide anchorage against pulling or
pushing Forces due to retaining
earth.
 FENDER PILE
Protect the structure like docks, boat,
jetties against the impact of ships and
other floating objects.
 BATTER PILE
• Inclined piles to resist the inclined force – Ports, harbours & boat
jetties
BASED ON FUNCTION
• Depending on their function, piles are classified as
1. bearing piles,
2. friction piles,
3. friction-cum-bearing piles
• 1)Bearing piles are driven into the ground until a hard stratum is
reached. Bearing piles rest on hard strata and act as pillars to support
the structure. Bearing piles allow vertical loads and transfer the
building load to the hard stratum underneath. 

• 2)Friction piles are used when the soil is soft and there are no hard
strata available. These piles are long, and the surfaces are roughened
to increase surface area and increase frictional resistance. They bear
on frictional resistance between their outer surface and the soil in
contact. Friction piles do not rest on hard strata. 
• 3)Bearing-Cum-Friction Piles: Piles which resist the loads due to the
combined action of end-bearing resistance at the pile bottom and skin
friction resistance over its surface along the length are known as
bearing-cum- friction piles.
Classification based on material
Simple Piles
Simple Piles
Steel piles
Steel piles
•  steel pile can be a rolled section, a fabricated shape, or a piece of sheet
pile.
• Two or more sections of sheet piles may be connected together in a
box shape and driven as one pile.
• The most important advantage of using a steel pile is its load-carrying
capacity. A steel pile can take up to 100 tons per pile.
• Steel piles are most commonly used for foundations of large structures
with heavy loads.
• H-piles and pipe piles ,box piles tube piles are the most commonly used
types.
Timber piles
Timber piles
• Timber pile is a trunk of a tree, trimmed of branches.
• A timber pile is usually designed for a maximum load of 15 to 25 tons/pile.
Additional strength can be obtained by bolting fish plates to its side.
• These piles last for about 30 years. The wood should be free from any
defects. These piles may be circular or square. The dimensions vary from 30
to 50 cm
• At bottom of the pile, an iron shoe is provided and at the top a steel plate is
fixed. The pile can be driven to the ground by giving blows at the tops.
• These piles can be used as a foundation for structures with moderate load
and as a foundation for temporary structures.
Composite Piles 
• Composite Piles are those piles of two different materials are driven
one over the other, so as to enable them to act together to perform
the function of a single pile.
• In such a combination, advantage is taken of the good qualities of
both the materials.
• These prove economical as they permit the utilization of the great
corrosion resistance property of one material with the cheapness or
strength of the other.
Sand piles
• Sand piling is a soil improvement technique by which bearing capacity of
soil is increased.
• Soil improvement with the use of sand piles happen through a
compacting process, in which the sand piles are places in low strength
soils, which are then improved by dynamic force or vibration.
• The piles promote neighboring soil compacting, thus improvement the
bearing capacity, and decreasing the foundation settlement.
• These piles are formed by making holes in the ground and filling with
sand. A bore of required diameter usually 30cms formed either by
driving a wooden pile or by an auger or by forcing a pipe with closed
end to the ground.
• The hole is then filled with concrete to prevent the sand coming
upwards due to any lateral pressure.
 CAISSONS
It’s a prefabricated hollow box or cylinder.
 It is sunk into the ground to some desired depth and then filled with concrete
thus forming a foundation.
 Most often used in the construction of bridge piers & other structures that
require foundation beneath rivers & other bodies of water.
This is because caissons can be floated to the job site and sunk into place.
It’s a form of deep foundation which are constructed above ground level, then
sunk to the required level by excavating or dredging material from within the
caisson.
A caisson foundation consists of concrete columns constructed in cylindrical
shafts excavated under the proposed structural column locations
CAISSONS
CAISSONS
CAISSONS
Foundation for Machinery
• Machine foundations are special types of foundations required for
machines, machine tools and heavy equipment's which have wide
range of speeds, loads and operating conditions. These foundations are
designed considering the shocks and vibrations (dynamic forces)
resulting from operation of machines.
•  Following are the types of machine foundations generally used: 
1. Block Type Machine
2. Box or Caisson Type Machine Foundation
3. Wall Type Machine Foundation
4. Framed Type Machine Foundation
 • Box type foundation consists of a
• This type of foundation hollow concrete block as shown
consists of a pedestal resting in figure below. The mass of this
on a footing have has large foundation is less than block
mass and a small natural type machine foundation as it is
frequency. hollow. The natural frequency of
the box type machine
foundation is increased.
• This type of machine foundation • This type of machine foundation
consists of a pair of walls with a consists of vertical columns with
slab resting on top. This type of horizontal frame at their tops. It is
foundation is constructed of used for larger machines. The
homogeneous materials. It is machines are rested on the top of
used for small machines and the frames. The vertical and horizontal
machine is rested on the top members of this foundation can be
slab. constructed by different materials.
 Foundation for Reciprocating type machines
• The machine foundation should be separated at all levels from the main building
and from other foundation to the extent possible.
• Overhanging cantilever should be avoided
• Concrete block foundation is used, when the supporting soil has good bearing
capacity , otherwise pile foundation in used.
• Mass of the foundation should be greater than that of the reciprocating machine
• Centre of gravity of the machine and foundation should lie below the top of the
foundation block
• Pile cap is used as concrete block, should satisfy the design criteria and should
have a minimum thickness of 60 cms
• Minimum reinforcement provided in the concrete block should not be less than
25kg/m3
Foundation for impact type machine
Definitions
• Anvil: Anvil is a solid block cover which is forged into shape by striking
the material repeatedly with the tip of hammer
• Tup: Tup is a weighed block which strikes the material being forged on
the anvil.
• The centre of gravity of the anvil, foundation block and the resultant
of all the forces should all lie in the line of fall of the tup of the
hammer
• Mass of the anvil is normally 20 times the mass of the tup and the
mass of the foundation block should not be less than 3 times the
mass of the anvil.
• What is Brick Masonry ?
Laying of bricks bonded together with mortar is
known as brick masonry.
 Basic Terms
• Header : a header is the shorter face of the brick

• Stretcher : longer face of the brick

• Closer : it is a portion of a brick with the cut made

longitudinally and is used to close up bond at the end of the
course. Closers may be of different type

Queen closer : it is a portion of a brick obtained by cutting a

brick lengthwise into two portions.

King closer : it is the portion of a brick which is so cut that

the width of one its end is half that of a full brick , while the
width at other end is equal to the full width
• Bat : it is the portion of a brick cut across the width. If
the length of the bat is equal to half the length of the
original brick it is known as half bat.
Masonry Wall Requirements
The usual functional requirements of a masonry wall
include:
i) Adequate strength to support imposed loads
ii) Sufficient water tightness
iii) Sufficient visual privacy and sound transmission
iv) Appropriate fire resistance
v) Ability to accommodate heating, air conditioning,
electrical, and plumbing equipment
vi) Ability to receive various finish materials
vii) Ability to provide openings such as doors and window
 Bonds In Bricks
• The arrangement of bricks in brick work so that the
vertical joints do not come over each other.

Stretcher Bond

Header Bond
Types of Bond
English Bond

Flemish Bond
 Stretcher/Common Bond
• Only used for walls of half brick thickness(partition
wall)

• To break the vertical continuity ½ brick bat is provided

in alternating courses
Stretcher Bond
 Header bond
• Also known as Spanish bond

• A very common bond for load bearing walls

• It is composed of header bricks, set in rows that are offset ¾ of a

brick as a quoin brick in alternating courses, which produces a

solid easy to lay bond.

Header Bond
English bond
• The strongest bond
• This bond maximizes the strength of wall
• Pattern on the face of the wall shows distinctive courses of headers &
stretchers.
English Bond
 One and half Brick
English Bond
One Brick English
Bond
• In this type of bond, there are alternative courses of stretcher and header. A queen closer place
just after the header to provide a good overlap. The queen closer does not require the stretcher
course.
• This type of bond generally uses in practice. It considered the strongest bond in brickwork. The
following are the features of an English bond.
• The alternate courses consist of stretchers and headers.
• The queen closer put next to the queen header to develop.
• Each alternate header is centrally supported over a stretcher.
• If the wall thickness is an even multiple of half-brick, the same course shows headers or stretchers
in both the fronts and the back elevations. But if the wall thickness is an uneven multiple of half-
brick, a course showing stretcher on the face shows the header on the back and vice versa.
• The bricks in the same course do not break joints with each other. The joints are straight.
• In this bond, the continuous vertical joints do not form except at certain stopped ends.
• The number of mortar joints in the header course is nearly double that in the stretcher course.
Hence care should take to make the header joints thinner otherwise the face lap disappears
quickly.
• A header course should never start with a queen closer as it is liable to get displaced in this
position.
Essential features
1. Alternative courses will show either headers or stretchers in elevation
2. Every alternate header comes centrally over the joint between two
stretchers in course below
3. There is no continues vertical joint
4. Walls of even multiple of half bricks present the same appearance on
both faces.
5. Wall of odd multiple of half bricks will show stretchers on one face
and headers on the other face
6. The hearting of each of the thicker walls consists entirely of headers
7. At least every alternate transverse joint is continuous from face to
face
8. Since the number of vertical joints in the header course are twice the
number of vertical joints in the stretcher course, the joint in the
header course are made thinner than the joints in the stretcher
course
Flemish Bond

• Flemish bond In bricklaying, an arrangement of bricks such that each

course consists of alternate bricks having their short sides (headers)
and long sides (stretchers) facing outwards, with alternate courses
being offset.
One Brick
Flemish Bond
Flemish bond
• The Flemish bond may be divide, two groups
• Double Flemish bond
• Single Flemish bond
• Each header in every course lies centrally over each stretcher of the
underlying course.
• The bricks in the same course do not break joints with each other. The
joints are straight.
• Single Flemish bond

• Double Flemish bond

 English bond Flemish bond

• Headers and stretchers are laid in • Headers and stretchers are laid
alternate courses. alternately in each course.
• Strongest of the types of bonds. • Comparatively less strong for walls more
than 30cm thick.
• Provides rough appearance.
• Provide good appearance.
• Absence of vertical joints in the • Partly continuous vertical joints appear
structure. in the structure.
• Special attention is not required for • Special attention is required for this
this bond. bond.
• Progress of work is more. • Progress of work is less.
• Costly, no brick bats are used. • Economical, as brick bats are used.
• Skilled labor is not required for its • Skilled labor required for its
construction. construction.
• More mortar is used due to use of bats.
• Less mortar is used.
Stone masonry
• Stone masonry is a type of building masonry construction that uses
stones and mortar.
• This construction technique is used for building foundations, floors,
retaining walls, arches, walls and columns.
• The stones used for masonry construction are natural rocks. These
natural rocks are cut and dressed into proper shape in order to use it
in masonry construction.
• Stones are one of the most durable and strong building materials.
Classification of Stone Masonry
• The two main classifications of Stone Masonry are:
• Rubble Masonry
• Ashlar Masonry
 Rubble Masonry
• This is the stone masonry type where stones employed are either
undressed or roughly dressed. These masonry constructions do not
have a uniform thickness. The strength of the rubble masonry is
dependent on the:
• Quality of Mortar Used
• Use of Long through stones
• Proper filling of mortar between the stone spaces and joints
Classification of rubble masonry
• Rubble masonry can be again classified into
a. Coursed Rubble Masonry
b. Uncoursed Rubble Masonry
c. Dry Rubble Masonry
d. Polygonal Masonry
e. Flint Masonry
Coursed Rubble Masonry
• In coursed rubble masonry construction, the stones in a particular
course are in equal heights. The stones hence used possess different
sizes. In this type, all the courses do not have same height. This type is
commonly employed in the construction of public buildings,
abutments, residential buildings and piers of ordinary bridges.
Uncoursed Rubble Masonry
• An uncoursed rubble masonry is the cheapest and roughest form of
stone masonry construction. These construction use stones of varied
shape and size. The stones are directly taken from the quarry called as
undressed stone blocks. The courses is not maintained regularly in
this method of construction
Polygonal Rubble Masonry
• Here, the stones for masonry are roughly shaped into irregular
polygons. The stones are then arranged in such a way that it avoids
vertical joints in the face work. Break the joints as possible. Use of
stone chips to support the stones.
Flint Rubble Masonry
• In areas where flint is available plenty, a flint rubble masonry is
employed. Flints are irregularly shaped nodules of silica. They are
extremely hard but brittle in nature. The thickness of the flint stones
varies from 8 to 15cm. Their length varies from 15 to 30cm.
Dry Rubble Masonry
• These are rubble masonry construction performed without the use of
mortar. Small spaces are filled with smaller stone pieces. It is used in
pitching the earthen dams and the canal slopes.
Ashlar Masonry
• Ashlar masonry is constructed using accurately dressed stones that possess
uniform and fine joints. The thickness of the joints ranges about 3mm which
is arranged in various patterns. The size of the stone blocks must be in
proportion with the thickness of the walls.
• The various types of ashlar masonry are:
• Ashlar Fine Masonry
• Ashlar Block in Course
• Ashlar Chamfered Masonry
• Ashlar Rough Tooled Masonry
• Rock or Quarry Faced Masonry
• 1. Ashlar Fine Masonry
• In ashlar fine masonry construction, each stone is cut into uniform
size and shape, almost rectangular in shape. This shape hence
provides perfect horizontal and vertical joints with the adjacent
stones. An ashlar fine masonry construction is very costly.
• 2. Ashlar Rough Masonry
• This type has stones whose sides are finely chisel -dressed. The face
of the stones is made rough by means of tools. Around the perimeter
of the rough dressed face of each stone, a strip of 25mm width is
provided.
• 3. Rock and Quarry Faced
• This masonry type has a 25 mm wide strip made by a chisel placed
around the perimeter of every stone. The remaining portion of the
face is left in the same form as it is received.
• 4. Ashlar Block in Course Masonry
• This type is a combination of ashlar masonry and rubble masonry. The
faces work of the masonry stones is either rough tooled or hammer
dressed stones. The backing of the wall may be done in rubble
masonry.
• 5. Ashlar Chamfered Masonry
• A strip is provided as shown in the figure below. But the sides are
chamfered or beveled at an angle of 45 degrees by means of a chisel
at a depth of 25mm.
Comparison between Stone masonry and
brick masonry
Brick Masonry Stone Masonry
Roofs
• It may be defined as the uppermost part of the building, provided as a
structural covering, to protect the building from weather.
• Structurally, a roof is constructed in the same way as an upper floor,
though the shape of its upper surface may be different.
• Roof consists of structural elements which support roof is roof
covering.
• The roof coverings may be A.C. sheets, G.I. sheets, wooden shingles,
tiles, slab itself.
REQUIREMENTS OF A ROOF
• It should be durable against the adverse effects of various agencies
such as wind, rain, sun etc.
• It should grant the desirable insulation against sound and heat.
• It should be structurally stable and sound, it should be capable of
taking the loads likely to come over it.
• It should be well-drained.
• It should have efficient water-proofing arrangement.
TYPES OF ROOF
•  Pitched or Sloping Roofs
A sloping roof is known as pitched roof.
These are suitable in those areas where rainfall/ snowfall is very heavy.
• Flat Roofs or terraced Roofs
suitable in those areas where rainfall is moderate
• Curved Roof
Top surfaces curved in the form of shells and domes
Suitable for building to develop architectural effect
 Pitched Roof
Flat Roof

Curved Roof
FORMS OF PITCHED ROOF
• LEAN-TO-ROOF - It is the simplest form of a pitched roof and it is known as
pent roof. In this type of roof, one wall is carried up sufficiently higher than the
other to give necessary slope to the roof.
• GABLE ROOF - This is the common type of sloping roof which slopes in two
direction. The two slopes meet at the ridge
• GAMBREL ROOF- This roof like gable roof, slopes in two directions but there is
break in each slope.
•  HIP ROOF - This roof is formed by four sloping surfaces in four directions
• MANSARD ROOF -This roof like a hip roof, slopes in four directions but each
slope has a break.
• DECK ROOF- A deck roof has slopes in all the four directions, like a hip roof but
a plane surface is formed at the top.
Deck roof

Gambrel roof

Mansard roof
BASIC ELEMENTS
• SPAN:- The horizontal distance between the internal faces of walls or
supports is known as span or clear span.
• RISE:- It is the vertical distance between the top of the ridge and wall
plate.
• PITCH:- It is the inclination of the sides of a roof to the horizontal
plane. It is expressed in degrees or as a ratio of rise to span.
• RIDGE:-It is defined as the apex line of the sloping roof.
• EAVES:-The lower edge of a roof which are resting upon or projecting
beyond the supporting walls are known as eave.
• HIP:-The angle formed at the intersection of two roof slopes is known as hip.
• VALLEY:-When two roof surfaces meet together and form an internal angle, a valley is formed.
• VERGE:- The edge of a gable, running between the eaves and ridge is known as a verge.
• COMMON RAFTER:-These are the intermediate rafters, which give support to the roof
coverings.
• PRINCIPAL RAFTER:- These are the inclined members of a truss.
• HIP RAFTER:- Which provided at the junction of two roof slopes.
• PURLINS:- The wooden pieces which are placed horizontally on principal rafters to carry the
common rafters are known as purlins.
• BATTENS:- Thin rips of wood which are fixed on rafters or ceiling to support the roof ceiling.
• CLEATS:- Small blocks of wood which are fixed on truss to prevent the sliding of purlins.
• GABLE:-The triangular upper part of a wall formed at the end of a pitched roof is known as
gable.
TYPES OF PITCHED ROOF
• A) Single Roofs:- • Truncated roof Truss
 Lean-to-Roof
Couple Roof
• Bel-fast roof Truss or latticed
Couple-close Roof roof Truss
Collar beam Roof or Collar tie Roof • Composite roof Truss
• B) Double or Purlin Roof
• Steel sloping roof Truss
• C) Framed or Trussed Roof
 King Post Roof Truss
 Queen Post Roof Truss
 Combination of king-post & queen-post truss
Mansard roof Truss
• SINGLE ROOFS - In this type of roofs common rafters are provided to each slope without
any intermediate support. Such roof is used only when the span is limited to 5m.
• LEAN-TO-ROOF- It is the simplest form of a pitched roof and it is known as pent roof or
Aisle roof. In this type of roof, one wall is carried up sufficiently higher than the other to
give necessary slope to the roof. A lean-to roof is generally used for sheds, out- houses
attached to main buildings verandah etc. This is suitable for a maximum span of 2.4m
• COUPLE ROOF - This type of roof is formed by couple or pair of rafters which slope to
both the sides of the ridge of the roof. In this type of roof the common rafters slope
upwards from the opposite walls and they meet on a ridge piece in the middle .A
couple roof is suitable for spans up to about 3.6m.
• COUPLE CLOSE ROOF-This roof is just similar to couple roof except that the ends of the
couple of the common rafters is connected by horizontal member, called tie beam. The
tie beam prevents the tendency of rafters to spread out and thus danger of overturning
of the walls is avoided. The tie beam may be a wooden member or a steel rod. This roof
can be adopted economically up to the span of 4.2m.
• COLLAR BEAM ROOF-When the span increases or when the load is more
the rafters of the couple close roof have the tendency to bend. This is
avoided by raising the tie beam and fixing it at one-third to one-half of the
vertical height from the wall plate to the ridge. This raised beam is known
as collar beam. This beam roof is adopted to economize the space and to
increase the height of a room. This roof can be adopted up to a maximum
span of 4.8m.
• FRAMED OR TRUSSED ROOF-When the span exceeds 5 m and when there
are no inside supporting walls or partitions for purlins, framed structure
known as trusses are on the roof, position of cross walls, span and material
of the truss. The spacing is 3m for wooden trusses. Trusses carry the ridge
piece and purlins on which the common rafters rest.
• KING POST TRUSS - In this type of truss, the central post known as king-post
forms support for the tie beam. The inclined members, known as struts,
prevents the principal rafters from bending in the middle. A king-post truss
suitable for roofs of span varying from 5 to 8 m
• QUEEN POST TRUSS-This truss is differ from a king-post truss in having two
vertical members known as queen posts. The upper ends of the queen posts
are kept in position by means of a horizontal member known as straining
beam. Additional purlins are supported on the queen posts. A queen post
truss is suitable for roof spans varying 8 to 12 m 
• MANSARD TRUSS-This is a combination of king post and queen post trusses.
Lower queen post & upper king post trusses. Use of mansard trusses results
in the economy of space and room may be provided in the room
• STEEL TRUSS - For spans greater 12m, it becomes economical to use steel
trusses. For smaller spans, steel trusses consists of angles riveted or welded
together through plates known as gusset plates. As steel resists both
compression and tension stresses, the design of steel truss is simplified
various types of steel trusses
• COMPOSITE TRUSS-This truss composed of wooden members and steel.
Steel members resists tension. A composite truss is light and economical
Mansard roof Truss
ROOF COVERING FOR PITCHED ROOF
•  Roof covering is an essential part of pitches roof , to be placed over the roof
frame work.
• It protect from rain, snow, sun, wind & other atmospheric agencies.
• Selection of roofing materials depends upon:-
a) Type of framework
b) Initial cost
c) Maintenance requirement
d) Appearance
e) Durability
f) Availability
g) Climate
ROOF COVERING MATERIALS 
• Following are the roof covering materials
a) Thatch Covering
b) Wood Shingles
c) Tiles
d) Asbestos cement sheets
e) Galvanized corrugated iron sheets
f) Light weight roofing