6 - Hydrauliccylinders

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Hydraulic Cylinders

Hydraulic Cylinders
• In all applications, hydraulic
working energy must be
converted to mechanical energy
before any useful work can be
done. Hydraulic cylinders convert
hydraulic working energy into
straight-line mechanical energy.

A hydraulic cylinder consists of a


cylinder body, a movable piston,
and a piston rod attached to the
piston. End caps are attached to
the cylinder body barrel by
threads, keeper rings, tie rods, or
a weld. (Industrial cylinders use
tie rods.)
 
Types of
Cylinders
Single acting cylinder -
a cylinder in which fluid
pressure is applied to
the movable element in
                                  only one direction.

Spring return cylinder -


      a cylinder in which a
spring returns the
piston assembly.

Ram cylinder - a
cylinder in which the
movable element has
the same cross-
sectional area as the
piston rod.
Double acting cylinder - a cylinder in which fluid
pressure is applied to the movable element in either
direction.
Single rod cylinder - a cylinder with a piston rod
extending from one end.
Double rod cylinder- a cylinder with a single piston
and a piston rod extending from each end.
Another way of describing cylinders is by their construction features, such as
whether they are single-ended or double-ended. The cylinder in Figs 6.1 and
6.2 have only one rod extending from the housing and thus are termed a
single-ended (or differential) cylinders. Fig. 6.3b shows a double-ended
cylinder. Note the rod extending from each end of the cylinder. This type is
also termed double rod or double rod end. (For comparison, a single-ended
double-acting cylinder is shown in Fig. 6.3a). A double-ended cylinder is
usually also double-acting. Therefore, a double-ended, double-acting cylinder
is described simply as "double-ended."
In order to provide a large force with a small-diameter cylinder, a
tandem cylinder is sometimes used. The pressure acts on both
pistons. Therefore, the total force capability is almost twice that of a
standard cylinder of the same size. The most common applications
for this type of cylinder are in mobile equipment, where limited
space is often a consideration.
Dual (or duplex) cylinders
are shown in Figure 6.5. When
pressurized fluid enters the
center port of the cylinder in
Figure 6.5a, both pistons will
extend, provided there is
sufficient pressure to move both
loads. If the loads are different,
the one requiring the least
pressure will extend first. The
configuration in Figure 6.5b
allows the pistons to be
operated individually or at the
same time, depending on how
the fluid is directed to the ports.
Duplex cylinders are commonly
employed to operate double
doors such as the landing gear
doors on some aircraft.
  
Telescoping cylinder
a                 
cylinder with nested multiple
tubular rod segments which
                           
 
provide a long working stroke in a
short     retracted envelope.
• As the cylinder rod moves in
and out, it is guided and
supported by a removable
bushing called a rod gland.
The side through which the rod
protrudes is called the "head."
The opposite side without the
rod is termed the "cap." Inlet
and outlet ports are located in
the head and cap.
seals
• For proper operation, a
positive seal must exist across
a cylinder's piston as well as at
the rod gland. Cylinder pistons
are sealed by using lip-seals or
cast iron piston rings.
Seals
Seals are used in various places throughout the cylinder .
The piston seal is used between the piston and the cylinder wall. The design is
such that oil pressure spreads the seal against the cylinder wall, thus the greater
the pressure the greater the sealing force. The head end ('O' ring) seal prevents
oil escaping between the rod gland and the cylinder wall.
The rod seal is a "U" shaped or u-cup shaped seal that wipes the oil off the rod
as the rod is extended from the cylinder.
The wiper seal is fitted to the cylinder and prevents dirt or grit being drawn
into the cylinder as the cylinder rod retracts.
Seals are made of polyurethane, nitrile or viton. The material should be
verified to be compatible with the fluid used and the operating conditions.
Seals
Hydraulic Shock

 
When hydraulic working energy
moving a cylinder's piston runs into
                            
a dead end (as at the end of a
cylinder's   stroke), the liquid inertia is
changed into a concussion known as
"hydraulic shock." If a substantial
amount of working energy is
stopped, the shock may damage the
cylinder.

Cushions
To protect against excessive shock
a cylinder can be equipped with
cushions. Cushions slow down a
cylinder's piston movement just
before reaching the end of its stroke.
Cushions can be applied at
either or both ends of a
cylinder.

A cushion consists of a
needle valve flow control
and a plug attached to the
piston. The plug can be on
the rod side, in which case
it is called a cushion
sleeve. Or, it can be on the
cap end side, in which
case it is called a cushion
spear.
• How a cushion works
As a cylinder piston approaches the
end of its travel, the plug blocks the
normal exit for a liquid and forces it to
pass through the needle valve. At this
point, some flow goes over the relief
valve at the relief valve setting. The
remaining liquid ahead of the cylinder
piston is bled off through the needle
valve and slows down the piston. The
opening of the needle valve
determines the rate of deceleration.
In the reverse direction, flow bypasses
the needle valve by means of a check
valve within the cylinder.

As a rule, cushions are applied to


cylinders whose piston rod speed
exceeds 20 feet per minute.
Cylinder with a cushion
• When a cylinder reaches
the end of the stroke the
piston and rod are
decelerated to standstill.
The kinetic energy
resulting from this, must
be absorbed by the end
stop, the cylinder head
or cylinder cap. Its
capacity to absorb this
energy depends on the
elastic limit of the
material.
Cylinder
• If the kinetic energy exceeds this limit the cylinder
needs an external or internal end position
cushioning. In this example we use an internal end
position cushioning. When the piston with the
cushioning bush travels into the bore in the cylinder
cap the fluid must exhaust from the piston chamber
by means of the adjustable throttle valve. This
throttle valve regulates the degree of cushioning
Cylinder Calculations
  F=p*A (6.1)
 Remember that we are actually referring to the force output capability in this
equation. It would probably be better to use this equation in the following form:
P=F/A (6.2)
The system pressure depends on the force required to move the load. This is a
more realistic concept, because we know that pressure results from a resistance
to flow. In the case of a cylinder, the load constitutes the resistance to flow. In a
single-ended, double-acting cylinder, there are two different force capabilities
(one for extension and one for retraction) at any given pressure because there are
different areas on the two sides of the piston. On extension, the pressure acts in
the entire face of the piston (Fig. 6.8a). Thus, we can write Equation 6.1 as
 Fext = p x Apiston (6.3)

On retraction the surface area on which the pressure acts is reduced by the area
of the rod. In this case, we write Fret = p x (Apiston - Arod)

The term (Apiston - Arod)actually refers to the annular area around the rod. This is
the area upon which the pressure is exerted. Because there is less area, the force
Another phenomenon that results from the differential piston areas is called flow
differential. It simply means that the flow leaving a cylinder port is different from
the flow entering the opposite port. The relationship can be shown by using the
following equation. In this equation, the velocity in extension is v = Qin / Apiston
where Qin, is the flow entering the blind end. Now we can modify that equation
slightly to consider the flow leaving the cylinder: v = Qout / (Apiston – Arod)
 where Qout is the flow leaving the rod end. Since both of these equations define
the same velocity, we can equate them to get Qin / Apiston = Qout / (Apiston – Arod)
Solving this equation for Qout, we get Qout = Qin (Apiston – Arod) / Apiston
For extension, the flow rate coming out of the cylinder is less than the flow rate
going in. The ratio of the areas of the two sides of the piston determines how
much the flow is reduced. We could do the same thing for the flow rates on
retraction. On retraction, the flow rate leaving the blind end of the cylinder would
be greater than the flow rate entering the blind end. It would be increased by the
ratio of the total piston area to the annular area. This can be important when
sizing system components-valves and filters especially-based on flow rate
requirements.

The Horsepower output HP = F * v


Cylinders in a circuit

 
We have seen that the mechanical
force developed by a cylinder is the
result of hydraulic pressure acting on
the square inch area of the cylinder
piston. If a load offers a resistance to
move of 5,000 lbs., and the area of the
                   
cylinder piston is 10 in.2, then a
hydraulic pressure of 500 PSI (P =F/A
     
= 5000 lbs./10 in.2) at the piston will
move the load.
In all these problems, we-made the
assumption that hydraulic pressure
was not present on the other side of
the piston. Even though this piston
side is generally drained to tank when
the cylinder is extending, tank line
pressure, or back pressure, can be as
high as 100 PSI in some systems.
With this back pressure acting on the
piston's rod end area, a force is
generated which wants to retract the
piston and piston rod. This force,

 
together with the resistance offered by
the load, must be overcome before the
load can be moved. In our example, if the
rod end area of the piston were 8 in.2, the
                                 
back pressure in the tank line were 100
PSI, and the load offered the same 5000
   then the force which must be
lbs.,
overcome is 5000 lbs. of the load and the
800 lbs. (100 PSI x 8in.2) generated by
the back pressure. The total force
therefore equals 5,800 lbs. The pressure
required at the cylinder piston to move
the load is therefore 580 PSI (P = 5800
lbs./10 in.2).
In some applications, the space in which
a cylinder can be mounted is limited and
so is the maximum working pressure. In
these applications, a tandem cylinder is
used to develop the required output
force.
•A tandem cylinder is in effect two or more cylinders with equal
strokes. The cylinder bodies are joined together and the piston rods
are connected.
•For example, a cylinder with a piston area of 10 in.2 is the largest
bore size which can be physically mounted on a machine. Yet the
maximum working pressure available is only 500 PSI and it must
move a load which offers a resistance of 9000 lbs. A tandem cylinder
can be used which is made up of two cylinders with 10in.2 area
pistons and 2in.2 area rods.
•With 500PSI acting on 10 in.2 of one cylinder and 8 in.2 of the other
cylinder, 9000 lbs. of force is developed to move the load.
•If another cylinder with a 10 in.2" piston area were added to the
tandem set, 13000 lbs. of force could he developed by 500 PSI. (500
PSI x 26 in.2 = 13000 Ibs.)
•Whereas a tandem cylinder consists of two or more cylinders of
equal strokes, a duplex cylinder is made up of two cylinders with
different strokes. Their cylinder bodies are joined together, but piston
rods are not connected.
A duplex cylinder gives 3 possible stroke
positions. One position is with both pistons
retracted. Another position is when the
shorter cylinder is stroked its length and in
turn pushes the longer cylinder an equal
distance. The third position is reached
when the long cylinder is stroked the
remainder of its length.
Duplex cylinders can also be made up of two
cylinders with their cap ends attached.
With this type duplex cylinder one piston
rod is usually attached to a machine
member.
In some applications, it is required that a
cylinder extend and retract at the same
speed. One way of accomplishing this is by
using a double rod cylinder.
Since a double rod cylinder has the same
diameter rod on both sides of the piston,
the areas of both sides of the piston
exposed to system flow are the same.
Therefore, with the rate of flow to each
side remaining constant, rod speed is the
 
 
One of the most difficult, if not
impossible, things to accomplish in
                                 
hydraulic systems is synchronizing the
movement of two cylinders. Even when
using the most sophisticated types of flow
control valves, the best that can be
                       
hoped for when synchronizing cylinders
with a stroke of 5 ft. is a -/+ 1/8". When
    
synchronizing cylinders with a 1 ft.
stroke, synchronization to within a +/-
1/16" is a realistic expectation. Even after
the cylinders have been synchronized to
these limits, in a relatively short period of
time they will be out of synchronization
because of the different wear
characteristics of the cylinders and
slightly different reactions of the flow
control valves to the same set of
conditions.
NOTE: When two or more cylinders must
stroke together, it is recommended that
their piston rods be mechanically
 
In some systems, a cylinder's
speed is increased by taking the
discharge flow from the rod end of
a cylinder and adding it to the flow
to the cylinder's cap end. If a 2:1
cylinder is used in the system, the
                       
cylinder's speed will be the same
whether extending or retracting.
    
A 2:1 cylinder has a rod with a
cross-sectional area equal to one
half of the piston area. In other
words, the rod side of the piston
has one half the area exposed to
pressure as the cap end side. (In
actual practice the rod area is not
precisely half the piston area.
However, we will consider it so in
order to facilitate our calculations.)
From the illustration, we can see that the
pump's flow and pressure are applied to

 
both sides of the piston at the same time.
It may appear that the cylinder would be
hydraulically locked. But the difference in
piston areas exposed to pressure results
in a larger force being generated on the
cap end piston side to extend the rod. As
the piston moves, the fluid which
                      
discharges from the rod side is added to
the pump flow. In effect, the fluid which is
displaced from the rod end switches
     
position to the other side of the piston.

A 2:1 cylinder connected in this manner is


said to be in a regenerative circuit. The
regenerative circuit which is illustrated
consists of a pump, relief valve, a
directional valve with a blocked port, and a
2:1 cylinder. With the directional valve in
the position shown, both sides of the
cylinder piston are subjected to the same
pressure. The unbalanced force which
Fluid discharging from the rod end is added
to the pump's flow. Since in a 2:1 cylinder

 
the discharge fluid from the rod end is
always half the volume entering the cap
end, the only volume which is filled by
pump flow is the other half of the cap end
volume. To calculate the rod speed of a
2:1 cylinder when it is regenerating, the
                    area of the rod is used in
cross-sectional
the calculations.
     
To retract the cylinder rod, the directional
valve is shifted. The cap end of the
cylinder is drained to tank. All pump flow
and pressure is directed to the rod end
side. Since the pump is filling the same
volume as at the cap end side (half cap
end volume), the rod retracts at the same
speed.

Using a 2:1 cylinder to regenerate flow


does increase rod speed , but it also
decreases the output force of the
(a) Electrically operated fluid-power intensifier. (b) Automatic reciprocating
pressure intensifier. (e) Reciprocating intensifier with mechanical shift.
To understand the operation of the pressure-booster circuit in Fig. 1-b, assume
movement of major piston to the right. Discharge passes freely through piloted
valve G to the tank. Intensified fluid closes check valves D and A. High-pressure
fluid is delivered to the outlet at a pressure level reflecting the resistance to flow
encountered in that part of the circuit.

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